The present perfect used with forand since 9 страница

agree/be anxious/arrange/be determined/determine/decide/ demand + infinitive + object are usually expressed in the passive by that... should, as above: Active He decided to sell the house. Passive He decided that the house should be sold. (See also 235.)

F Gerund combinations

advise/insist/propose/recommend/suggest + gerund + object are

usually expressed in the passive by that... should, as above:

Active He recommended using bullet-proof glass.

Passive He recommended that bullet-proof glass should be used.

(See 235.)

it/they + need + gerund can also be expressed by it/they + need +

passive infinitive. Both forms are passive in meaning.

Other gerund combinations are expressed in the passive by the passive

gerund:

Active / remember them taking me to the Zoo.

Passive / remember being taken to the Zoo.

3ОЗ Active tenses and their passive equivalents

В In colloquial speech get is sometimes used instead of be: The eggs got (= were) broken. You 'II get (= be) sacked if you take any more time off.

С Note that in theory a sentence containing a direct and an indirect object,

such as Someone gave her a bulldog, could have two passive forms: She was given a bulldog. A bulldog was given to her.

The first of these is much the more usual, i.e. the indirect object

usually becomes the subject of the passive verb.

(See also 302 E, F.) D Questions about the identity of the subject of an active verb are usually

expressed by an affirmative (see 55):

What delayed you? Which team won?

Questions about the subject of a passive verb are also expressed by an

affirmative:

Something was done. ~ What was done?

One of them was sold. ~ Which of them was sold? Interrogative verbs in active questions about the object become affirmative verbs in passive questions: Active What did they steal? (interrogative) Passive What was stolen? (affirmative) Conversely, affirmative verbs in active questions become interrogative verbs in

passive questions:

Active Who painted it? (affirmative)

Passive Who was it painted by? (interrogative)

Other types of question require interrogative verbs in both active and passive:

Active When/ Where j Why did he paint it?

Passive When/ Where/ Why was it painted?

304 Uses of the passive The passive is used:

A When it is not necessary to mention the doer of the action as it is obvious who he is/was/will be:

The rubbish hasn 't been collected. The streets are swept every day. Your hand will be X-rayed.

В When we don't know, or don't know exactly, or have forgotten who did the action:

The minister was murdered. My car has been moved! You'll be met at the station. I've been told that...

С When the subject of the active verb would be 'people':

He is suspected of receiving stolen goods. (People suspect him of...) They are supposed to be living in New York. (People suppose that they are living...) (See 245, 306 for infinitive constructions with passive verbs.)

D When the subject of the active sentence would be the indefinite pronoun one: One sees this sort of advertisement everywhere would usually be expressed:

This sort of advertisement is seen everywhere.

In colloquial speech we can use the indefinite pronoun you (see 68) and an active verb:

You see this sort of advertisement everywhere.

But more formal English requires one + active verb or the more usual passive form.

E When we are more interested in the action than the person who does it:

The house next door has been bought (by a Mr Jones). If, however, we know Mr Jones, we would use the active:

Your father's friend, Mr Jones, has bought the house next door. Similarly:

A new public library is being built (by our local council) though in more informal English we could use the indefinite pronoun they (see 68) and an active verb:

They are building a new public library while a member of the Council will of course say:

We are/The council is building etc.

F The passive may be used to avoid an awkward or ungrammatical sentence. This is usually done by avoiding a change of subject:

When he arrived home a detective arrested him would be better expressed:

When he arrived home he was arrested (by a detective).

When their mother was ill neighbours looked after the children would be better expressed:

When their mother was ill the children were looked after by

neighbours.

G The passive is sometimes preferred for psychological reasons. A speaker may use it to disclaim responsibility for disagreeable

announcements:

EMPLOYER: Overtime rates are being reduced/will have to be reduced. The active will, of course, be used for agreeable announcements:

lam/We are going to increase overtime rates.

The speaker may know who performed the action but wish to avoid giving the name. Tom, who suspects Bill of opening his letters, may say

tactfully:

This letter has been opened! instead of You 've opened this letter!

H For the have + object + past participle construction, / had the car resprayed, see 119.

305 Prepositions with passive verbs

A As already noted, the agent, when mentioned, is preceded by by: Active Dufy painted this picture. Passive This picture was painted by Dufy. Active What makes these holes? Passive What are these holes made by?

\ Note, however, that the passive form of such sentences as:

j Smoke filled the room. Paint covered the lock.

\ will be:

i The room was filled with smoke. The lock was covered with paint.

', We are dealing here with materials used, not with the agents.

• В When a verb + preposition + object combination is put into the passive,

the preposition will remain immediately after the verb: Active We must write to him. Passive He must be written to. Active You can play with these cubs quite safely. Passive These cubs can be played with quite safely. Similarly with verb + preposition/adverb combinations: Active They threw away the old newspapers. Passive The old newspapers were thrown away. Active He looked after the children well. Passive The children were well looked after.

306 Infinitive constructions after passive verbs

A After acknowledge, assume, believe, claim, consider, estimate,

• feel, find, know, presume, report, say, think, understand etc.: (see also 245)

: Sentences of the type People consider/know/think etc. that he is...

\ have two possible passive forms:

It is considered/known/thought etc. that he is... He is considered/known/thought etc. to be... Similarly:

People said that he was jealous of her =

It was said that he was or He was said to be jealous of her. The infinitive construction is the neater of the two. It is chiefly used with to be though other infinitives can sometimes be used:

He is thought to have information which will be useful to the police. When the thought concerns a previous action we use the perfect infinitive so that:

People believed that he was =

It was believed that he was or He was believed to be...

People know that he was =

It is known that he was or He is known to have been... This construction can be used with the perfect infinitive of any verb. В After suppose

1 suppose in the passive can be followed by the present infinitive of any verb but this construction usually conveys an idea of duty and is not therefore the normal equivalent of suppose in the active:

You are supposed to know how to drive =

It is your duty to know/You should know how to drive

though He is supposed to be in Paris could mean either 'He ought to be

there' or 'People suppose he is there'.

2 suppose in the passive can similarly be followed by the perfect infinitive of any verb. This construction may convey an idea of duty but very often does not:

You are supposed to have finished = You should have finished but He is supposed to have escaped disguised as a woman = People suppose that he escaped etc.

С Infinitives placed after passive verbs are normally full infinitives: Active We saw them go out. He made us work. Passive They were seen to go out. We were made to work. let, however, is used without to: Active They let us go. Passive We were let go.

D The continuous infinitive can be used after the passive of believe, know, report, say, suppose, think, understand:

He is believed/known/said/supposed/thought to be living abroad = People believe/know/say/suppose/think that he is living abroad. You are supposed to be working = You should be working. The perfect form of the continuous infinitive is also possible: He is believed to have been waiting for a message = People believed that he was waiting for a message. You are supposed to have been working = You should have been working.

31 Indirect speech

307 Direct and indirect (or reported) speech

There are two ways of relating what a person has said: direct and

indirect.

In direct speech we repeat the original speaker's exact words:

He said, 'I have lost my umbrella.'

Remarks thus repeated are placed between inverted commas, and a comma or colon is placed immediately before the remark. Direct speech is found in conversations in books, in plays, and in quotations. In indirect speech we give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech, -without necessarily using the speaker's exact words:

He said (that) he had lost his umbrella.

There is no comma after say in indirect speech, that can usually be omitted after say and tell + object. But it should be kept after other verbs: complain, explain, object, point out, protest etc. Indirect speech is normally used when conversation is reported verbally, though direct speech is sometimes employed here to give a more dramatic effect.

When we turn direct speech into indirect, some changes are usually necessary. These are most easily studied by considering statements, questions, and commands separately.

308 Statements in indirect speech: tense changes necessary

A Indirect speech can be introduced by a verb in a present tense: He says that... This is usual when we are:

(a) reporting a conversation that is still going on

(b) reading a letter and reporting what it says

(c) reading instructions and reporting them

(d) reporting a statement that someone makes very often, e.g. Tom says that he 'II never get married.

When the introductory verb is in a present, present perfect or future tense we can report the direct speech without any change of tense:

PAUL (phoning from the station): I'm trying to get a taxi.

ANN (to Mary, who is standing beside her): Paul says he is trying to

get a taxi.

В But indirect speech is usually introduced by a verb in the past tense. Verbs in the direct speech have then to be changed into a corresponding past tense. The changes are shown in the following table. (The that has been omitted in the last five examples.)

С Note on I/we shall/should

'I/we shall' normally becomes he/she/they would in indirect speech:

7 shall be 21 tomorrow, ' said Bill = Bill said he would be 21 the following day.

But if the sentence is reported by the original speaker, 'I/we shall' can become either I/we should or I/we would, would is the more common.

Similarly 'I/we should' usually becomes he/she/they would in indirect speech:

If I had the instruction manual I should/would know what to do, '

said Bill =

Bill said that if he had the instructions he would know what to do. But if the sentence is reported by the original speaker 'I/we should' can either remain unchanged or be reported by would. See last example in В above.

309 Past tenses sometimes remain unchanged

A In theory the past tense changes to the past perfect, but in spoken English it is often left unchanged, provided this can be done without causing confusion about the relative times of the actions. For example, He said, 7 loved her' must become He said he had loved her as otherwise there would be a change of meaning. But He said, 'Ann arrived on Monday' could be reported He said Ann arrived/had arrived on Monday.

В The past continuous tense in theory changes to the past perfect continuous but in practice usually remains unchanged except when it refers to a completed action:

She said, 'We were thinking of selling the house but we have decided

not to' =

She said that they had been thinking of selling the house but had

decided not to. But He said, 'When I saw them they were playing tennis' =

He said that when he saw them they were playing tennis.

С In written English past tenses usually do change to past perfect but there are the following exceptions:

1 Past/Past continuous tenses in time clauses do not normally change:

He said, 'When we were living/lived in Paris...' = He said that when they were living in Paris...

The main verb of such sentences can either remain unchanged or

become the past perfect:

He said, 'When we were living/lived in Paris we often saw Paul' = He said that when they were living/lived in Paris they often saw/had often seen Paul.

2 A past tense used to describe a state of affairs which still exists when the speech is reported remains unchanged:

She said, 7 decided not to buy the house because it was on a main road' =

She said that she had decided not to buy the house because it was on a main road.

310 Unreal past tenses (subjunctives) in indirect speech

A Unreal past tenses after wish, would rather/sooner and it is time

do not change:

'We wish we didn't have to take exams, ' said the children = The children said they wished they didn't have to take exams. 'Bill wants to go alone, ' said Ann, 'but I'd rather he went with a group' =

: Ann said that Bill wanted to go alone but that she 'd rather he went

with a group.

'It's time we began planning our holidays, ' he said = He said that it was time they began planning their holidays.

В I/he/she/we/they had better remains unchanged, you had better

can remain unchanged or be reported by advise + object + infinitive (see 120):

'The children had better go to bed early, ' said Tom =

Tom said that the children had better go to bed early.

'You 'd better not drink the water, ' she said =

She advised/warned us not to drink the water.

С Conditional sentences types 2 and 3 remain unchanged (see 229): 'If my children were older I would emigrate, ' he said = He said that if his children were older he would emigrate.

311 might, ought to, should, would, used to in indirect statements

A might remains unchanged except when used as a request form:

He said, 'Ann might ring today' =

He said that Ann might ring (that day). But 'You might post these for me, ' he said =

He asked me to post them for him. (See 285 for requests.)

В ought to/should for obligation or assumption remains unchanged: 'They ought to/should widen this road, ' I said = I said that they ought to/should widen the road. I said, 'I should be back by six' (I assume I will be) = / said I should be back by six.

С But you ought to/you should, if used to express advice rather than obligation, can be reported by advise + object + infinitive, you must can also express advice and be reported similarly.

'You ought to/should/must read the instructions, ' said Ann = Ann advised/urged/warned me to read the instructions.

D The advice form 'If I were you I should/would...' is normally reported by advise + object + infinitive:

'If I were you I'd wait, ' I said = / advised him to wait.

E The request form 'I should/would be (very) grateful if you

would ...' is normally reported by ask + object + infinitive: 'I'd be very grateful if you 'd keep me informed, ' he said = He asked me to keep him informed.

F would in statements doesn't change. But see 284 for would in requests etc.

G used to doesn't change:

7 know the place well because I used to live here, ' he explained = He explained that he knew the place well because he used to live there. (For could, see 312; for must, see 325.)

312 could in indirect statements

(For could interrogative, see 283-4.)

A could for ability

1 could for present ability does not change:

7 can 't/couldn 't stand on my head, ' he said = He said he couldn 't stand on his head.

2 could for future ability can remain unchanged or be reported by would

be able:

He said, 7 could do it tomorrow' =

He said he could do it/would be able to do it the next day.

3 could in type 2 conditional sentences is reported similarly:

'If I had the tools I could mend it, ' he said =

He said that if he had the tools he could/would be able to mend it.

would be able here implies that the supposition may be fulfilled.

(Perhaps he'll be able to borrow tools.)

4 could in type 3 conditional sentences is reported unchanged.

5 could for past ability can remain unchanged or be reported by had

been able:

7 could read when I was three! ' she boasted =

She boasted that she could/had been able to read when she was three.

В could for permission

1 In type 2 conditional sentences could can remain unchanged or be reported by would be allowed to:

'If I paid my fine I could walk out of prison today, ' he said =

He said that if he paid his fine he could/would be allowed to walk etc.

2 could in the past can remain unchanged or be reported by was/were allowed to or had been allowed to:

He said, 'When I was a boy I could stay up as long as I liked' = He said that when he was a boy he could/was allowed to stay up or He said that as a boy he was/had been allowed etc.

313 Indirect speech: pronoun and adjective

A Pronouns and possessive adjectives usually change from first or second to third person except when the speaker is reporting his own words:

He said, 'I've forgotten the combination of my safe' =

He said that he had forgotten the combination of his safe.

I said, 7 like my new house' =

I said that I liked my new house, (speaker reporting his own words) Sometimes a noun must be inserted to avoid ambiguity: Tom said, 'He came in through the window' would not normally be reported Tom said he had come in through the window as this might imply that Tom himself had come in this way: but if we use a noun there can be no confusion: Tom said that the man/burglar'/cat etc. had come in...

Pronoun changes may affect the verb:

He says, 'I know her' = He says he knows her. He says, 7 shall be there' = He says that he will be there.

В this and these

this used in time expressions usually becomes that:

He said, 'She is coming this week' =

He said that she was coming that week. Otherwise this and that used as adjectives usually change to the:

He said, 'I bought this pearl/these pearls for my mother' =

He said that he had bought the pearl/pearls for his mother. this, these used as pronouns can become it, they/them:

He showed me two bullets. 'I found these embedded in the panelling, '

he said =

He said he had found them embedded in the panelling.

He said, 'We will discuss this tomorrow' =

He said that they would discuss it/the matter the next day. this, these (adjectives or pronouns), used to indicate choice or to distinguish some things from others, can become the one(s) near him etc., or the statement can be reworded:

I'll have this (one), ' he said to me =

He said he would have the one near him or

He pointed to/touched/showed me the one he wanted.

314 Expressions of time and place in indirect speech A Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time change as follows:

7 saw her the day before yesterday, ' he said =

He said he 'd seen her two days before.

Til do it tomorrow, ' he promised =

He promised that he would do it the next day.

'I'm starting the day after tomorrow, mother, ' he said =

He told his mother that he was starting in two days' time.

She said, 'My father died a year ago' =

She said that her father had died a year before/the previous year.

В But if the speech is made and reported on the same day these time changes are not necessary:

At breakfast this morning he said, Til be very busy today' =

At breakfast this morning he said that he would be very busy today.

С Logical adjustments are of course necessary if a speech is reported one/two days after it is made. On Monday Jack said to Tom:

I'm leaving the day after tomorrow.

If Tom reports this speech on the next day (Tuesday) he will probably say:

Jack said he was leaving tomorrow. If he reports it on Wednesday, he will probably say:

Jack said he was leaving today.

D here can become there but only when it is clear what place is meant: At the station he said, Til be here again tomorrow' = He said that he 'd be there again the next day. Usually here has to be replaced by some phrase: She said, 'You can sit here, Tom' = She told Tom that he could sit beside her etc.. But He said, 'Come here, boys' would normally be reported: He called the boys.

315 Infinitive and gerund constructions in indirect speech

A agree/refuse/offer/promise/threaten + infinitive can sometimes be used instead of say (that):

ANN: Would you wait half an hour?

TOM: All right = Tom agreed to wait or Tom said he would wait.

ANN: Would you lend me another £ 50?

TOM: No, I won't lend you any more money =

Tom refused to lend her any more money or