Linking words and phrases

Most pieces of formal writing are organized in a similar way: introduction; development of main ideas or arguments; conclusion. Linking words and phrases join clauses, sentences and paragraphs together.

A piece of writing or text may include the following:

Connectives: The main linking words and phrases are grouped below according to the similarity of their meaning to the three basic connectives and, or, but. Some can be used to link paragraphs and others can only be used to link ideas within a paragraph.

1. listing: a) enumeration (points in order)

b) addition

i. reinforcement

ii. comparison

2. transition (leads to a new stage)

3. summary (gives a summary or conclusion AND

4. reference (refers to what was said before)

5. example

6. result (the consequence of what was said before)

7. place (refers to things in or outside the document)

8. time (refers to other studies)

9. reformulation (expresses something in another way)

10. replacement (expresses an alternative) OR

11. contrast (presents a different view)

12. concession (agrees that something is good, with limitations) BUT

AND

1. Listing

a) Enumeration indicates cataloguing of what is being said. Most lists use clearly defined groups of words:

First … furthermore … finally… One… a second … a third etc. First(ly), …..second(ly), …. third(ly), … etc. To begin/start with, …in the second place, …moreover, …to conclude, above all last but not least mark the end of ascending order first and foremost first and most importantly mark the beginning of descending order the former… the latter… The following …

The former and the latter are useful when you want to refer to one of two points.

" Marketing and finance are both covered in the course. The former is studied in the first term and the latter is studied in the final term."

Firstly, … secondly, … finally (or lastly) are useful ways to list ideas. It's rare to use " fourthly", or " fifthly". Instead, try the first point, the second point, the third point and so on.

The following is a good way of starting a list.

" The following people have been chosen to go on the training course: N Peters, C Jones and A Owen."

b) Addition to what has been previously indicated:

i. reinforcement (includes confirmation)

Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis. " We also spoke about marketing."

You can use also with not only to give emphasis.

" We are concerned not only by the costs, but also by the competition." If the project fails this will have terrible consequences not only on our department, but also on the whole organization

We don't usually start a sentence with also. If you want to start a sentence with a phrase that means also, you can use In addition, or In addition to this …: Johns grades are terrible because he has been so lazy these days. In addition to this, his relationship to his parents got worse.

As well as can be used at the beginning or the middle of a sentence: " As well as the costs, we are concerned by the competition." " We are interested in costs as well as the competition."

Too goes either at the end of the sentence, or after the subject and means as well. " They were concerned too. " " I, too, was concerned."

Apart from and besides are often used to mean as well as, or in addition to. " Apart from Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer." " Besides Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."

Moreover and furthermore add extra information to the point you are making. " Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market. Moreover, they tell us about the competition." The report is badly written. Moreover, it's inaccurate.

ii. comparison (similarity to what has preceded)

2. Transition (can lead to a new stage in the sequence of thought):

now regarding turning to with respect/regard to

as for as to often used when discussing something briefly

3. Summary (a generalization or summing up of what has preceded):

4. Reference (refers back to previous sentences):

5. Example:

6. Result (expresses the consequence or result from what is implicit in the preceding sentence or sentences):

Due to and owing to must be followed by a noun: " Due to the rise in oil prices, the inflation rate rose by 1.25%." " Owing to the demand, we are unable to supply all items within 2 weeks."

If you want to follow these words with a clause (a subject, verb and object), you must follow the words with the fact that: " Due to the fact that oil prices have risen, the inflation rate has gone up by 1%25." " Owing to the fact that the workers have gone on strike, the company has been unable to fulfill all its orders."

Because of is followed by a noun: " Because of bad weather, the football match was postponed."

Because can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence: " Because it was raining, the match was postponed." " We believe in incentive schemes, because we want our employees to be more productive." We can't go to Sue's party because we'll be busy working on our project.

Since / as

Since and as mean because: " Since the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff." " As the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."

Therefore, so, consequently and as a result are all used in a similar way: " The company are expanding. Therefore / So / Consequently / As a result, they are taking on extra staff."

He had spent most of his time hanging around instead of revising his lessons. Consequently, he had a lot of trouble answering the exam questions.

She remained silent, for she was so depressed to talk.

So is more informal.

7. Place:

8. Time:

OR

9. Reformulation (expresses something in another way):

10. Replacement (expresses an alternative to what has preceded):

BUT

11. Contrast:

But is more informal than however. It is not normally used at the beginning of a sentence.

" He works hard, but he doesn't earn much." " He works hard. However, he doesn't earn much."

Although, despite and in spite of introduce an idea of contrast. With these words, you must have two halves of a sentence: " Although it was cold, she went out in shorts." " In spite of the cold, she went out in shorts."

Despite and in spite of are used in the same way as due to and owing to. They must be followed by a noun. If you want to follow them with a noun and a verb, you must use the fact that: " Despite the fact that the company was doing badly, they took on extra employees."

Nevertheless and nonetheless mean in spite of that or anyway: " The sea was cold, but he went swimming nevertheless. " (In spite of the fact that it was cold.) " The company is doing well. Nonetheless, they aren't going to expand this year."

While, whereas and unlike are used to show how two things are different from each other: " While my sister has blue eyes, mine are brown." " Taxes have gone up, whereas social security contributions have gone down." " Unlike in the UK, the USA has cheap petrol."

In theory… in practice … show an unexpected result.

" In theory, teachers should prepare for lessons, but in practice, they often don't have enough time."

12. Concession (indicates that the previous view is accepted with reservations):