Past Tenses, Inceptive Imperfect Aspect

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The reporter got giving the lady books

Questions:

1. Why is the total verb system of English extraordinarily complex?

2. What does a verb group consist of?

3. What does H. Whitehall call the verbal auxiliaries?

4. What do the empty words modify?

5. What is the main function of the empty words?

6. How do verb groups express the aspects of a happening?

7. What does a present participle /a past participle, a simple base/ mark?

8. What is the role of the verbal helpers in differentiating general aspects?

9. What does the classification of the verbal helpers depend on?

10. What are two subdivisions of the verbal helpers?

11. What are Modals?

12. What do Modals signalize?

13. What verbs do Modals include?

14. What are Timers?

15. What verbs do Timers include

First period (before 20^th century)
Type	Authors/linguists	Books	Contribution
Early (prenormative) grammar	William Lily	“Latin grammar”	1. In the mid of 16^th century, Latin grammar written in English using English terminologies similar as in Latin, a precursor of earliest English grammar. 2. His grammar contained 6 cases and 6 genders. 3. connection of words - three concords of Latin (of nominatives and verbs, of substantive and adjective and of relative pronoun and its antecedent).
William Bullokar	“Bref Grammar of English” (1585)	1. His grammar consist of 5 cases and 6 genders.(1749, reprinted in 1819). Free use of theory of “signs”. 2. Divided parts of speech dichotomically-declinable and indeclinable parts of speech.

Ben Jonson	“English grammars”	1. English grammar contains 2 cases (17^th century). 2. contains words with number and words without number. 3. introduced “article” as ninth part of speech. 4. applied analysis of descriptive English syntax (a noun with a noun, a noun with an adjective, with an article, with a verb and so on). 5. gave special attention to word order.
Ch. Butler	“	1. contains words with number and case, and words without number and case. 2. declinable words with number and case-nouns, pronouns, verbs & participle. indeclinables – adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.
J. Wallis	“Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae” (1653)	1. written in Latin, category of case-non existent and ‘s form-as a possessive adjective.

John Brightland		1.supported the J.Wallis’s rule of grammar (early 18^th century) 2.reduced the no. of parts of speech to 4 indeclinables–names (nouns), qualities (adjectives), affirmation (verbs) & participles and omitted the traditional terminology. 3.concept of sentence was syntax order. 4.Divided sentences into 2 groups: simple (1 noun and 1 verb) and compound (2 or more simple sentences). 5.defines sentence as “expression of sentiment or thought”.
J. Wilkins	“An essay towards a real character and a philosophical language” (1668)	1. identification of grammatical notions of “nominative case” and verb with logical subject and predicate.

Second period (in the 20^th century)
Type	Authors/ Linguists	Books	Contributions
Prescriptive grammar (modern)	J. C Nesfield	”Modern English Grammar” (1898)	1. sentences contains four distinct parts- subject, adjuncts to the subject(attributive adjuncts0, predicates and adjuncts of predicate (adverbial adjuncts). 2. object has equal importance with the finite verb. 3. no. of cases of noun is increase to 5. 4. two new terms- double and multiple sentences was substituted from the term “compound sentence”. 5. “double” denotes coordination of two and “multiple” of more than two sentences.
Classical Scientific grammar(modern)	L. G Kimball	“Structure of the English Sentence” (1900)	1. discussed problems of the structure of English on the traditional plane. 2. shows influence of logical grammars.









C. T Onion	“Advanced English syntax” (1904)	1. deals with striking anticipation of sentence patterns of descriptive linguistics.
H. R Stokoe	“Understanding of Syntax” (1937)	1. adopted a new nomenclature describing double and multiple sentences.
H. Poutsma	“A grammar of late modern English”	1. introduces the term “composite sentence” as a common term for compound and complex sentences. 2. treats substantive clause, adverbial clause, infinitive clause, gerund clause and participle clause as units of same kind.
E. Kruisinga	“Syllabus of English syntax” (1937)	1. originated the theory of close and loose syntactic groups, the difference between them being based on the distinction between subordination and coordination. 2. studies concept of complex sentences. 3. dichotomic classification- simple and compound sentences. 4. compound sentences considered not a syntactic unit at all.
	Otto Jespersen	“Essentials of English Grammar” “Philosophy of grammar” (1924) “Analytic Syntax” (1937)	1. worked on syntax. 2. lists five parts of speech- substantive, adjectives, verbs, pronouns and particles (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections). 3. proposed three principles of classification- meaning, form and function as Sweet did. 4. introduced “ranks of determination” of parts of the sentence develops the concept of ranks. 5. according to him, in attributive and subject-predicate groups, the primary is the leading element while in a verbal group, it is a subordinate element. 6. object occupies the rank of primary. 7. offered primary, secondary and tertiary system of sentence. 8. Analytical syntax-grammatical constructions transcribed in formulas (parts of sentence and parts of speech are presented b
9.
10.
11.
12. y capital and small letters where s-subject, V-verb, v-auxillary verb, O-object, I-infinitive etc. and ranks by numerals 1, 2, 3.
R.W.Zandvoort	“Handbook of English grammar” (1945)
Structural and Transformational Grammar	Charles C. Fries	“The Structure of English” (1952)	1. classification of words into four “form-classes”, designated by numbers and 15 groups of “function words”, designated by letters. 2. form-classes consist of noun& pronouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs while function words-prepositions, conjunctions, particular kind of pronouns, adverbs and verbs. 3. retains traditional outlines of analysis of simple sentence.
	H. Whitehall	“Structural essential of English’ (1956)	1. says the bridge between the old and new, between the traditional and linguistic approaches should be erected very cautiously and carefully.
2.
3.
4.
5. consists of predicate including in verb and its complements. 6. attributive and adverbial modifiers have no distant position in the sentence.
N. Chomsky	“Syntactic structure” (1957) “Aspects of the theory of syntax” (1965)	1. sentence has surface and deep structure. 2. surface structure is complicated based on one or more underlined abstract simple structures, however the difference between the surface and deep is minimal 3. provides the process of formation and interpretation of sentences. 4. kernel sentences- basic elements of English, derivation rules of words which are not numeral with the help of which all grammar forms are build. Involves obligatory transformations to the phrase structure strings. 5. Non kernel sentence involve optional transformations such as active to passive 6. transformational operations consist in rearrangement, addition, deletion and combination of linguistic elements. 7. theory of bases of language containing elementary phrase structures (kernel sentence loose all significances).
	E. Bach	“Introduction to transformational grammars” (1964)	1. phrase structural rules form a counterpart in the theory of generative grammar to two techniques of linguistic analysis(one old and one rather new). 2. transformational grammar is formed in three basic parts- syntactic component, semantic component and phonological component.

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