Methods of Research

Research methods are traditionally distinguished into: theoretical and empirical.

Theoretical methods involve analysis and synthesis, generalization, abstract thinking, definitions making, modeling and etc.

Empirical methods include monitoring, reporting methods (questionnaire, public opinion poll, interview, testing), experiment and etc.

Scientific method is not a recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity. In this sense, it is not a mindless set of standards and procedures to follow, but is rather an ongoing cycle, constantly developing more useful, accurate and comprehensive models and methods. For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia. On the contrary, if the astronomically large, the vanishingly small, and the extremely fast are reduced out from Einstein's theories — all phenomena that Newton could not have observed — Newton's equations remain. Einstein's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton's theories and, thus, increase our confidence in Newton's work.

A linearized, pragmatic scheme is sometimes offered as a guideline for proceeding:

1. Define the question

2. Gather information and resources (observe)

3. Form hypothesis

4. Perform experiment and collect data

5. Analyse data

6. Interpret data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for new hypothesis

7. Publish results

8. Retest (frequently done by other scientists)

It is essential that the outcome be currently unknown. Only in this case does the eventuation increase the probability that the hypothesis be true. If the outcome is already known, it's called a consequence and should have already been considered while formulating the hypothesis.

The Role of Communication in Management

We noted earlier the variety of activities that fill a manager's day. Meetings, telephone calls and correspondence are all a necessary part of every manager's job - and all clearly involve communication. On a typical Monday, Nolan Archibald, CEO of Black & Decker, attended five scheduled meetings and two unscheduled meetings, had fifteen telephone conversations, received 29 letters, memos and reports and dictated ten letters. The opening incident provides a sober reminder of how important such communication can be.

As a starting point for understanding the importance of communication in management, recall the variety of roles that managers must fill. Each of the ten basic managerial roles would be impossible to fill without communication. Interpersonal roles involve interacting with supervisors, subordinates, peers and others outside the organization. Decisional roles require managers to seek out information to use in making decisions and then communicate those decisions to others. Informational roles focus specifically on the acquiring and disseminating of information.

Communication also relates directly to the basic management functions of planning, organizing and controlling. Environmental scanning, integrating planning-time horizons and decision making, for example, all necessitate communication. Delegation, coordination and organization change and development also entail communication. Developing reward systems and interacting with subordinates as a part of the leading function would be impossible without some form of communication. And communication is essential to establishing standards, monitoring performance and taking corrective actions as a part of control. Clearly, communication is a pervasive part of virtually all managerial activities. " Management in Practice" provides another important perspective on the importance of communication and how AT & T is working to cope with it.