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ЫЬ^-jbrii t4 ъ ftil fn# tS-altrf t* Class'CD'set: •; ■ - -; -•: *.: the*Class CDs contain;::: *: the* dialogues and listening activities Г: from the Student's Book; *;:; ji:.:: *: recordings of the songs: • ■;! * •*: *: *. - '; * *: recordings of the reading texts;: ж UMn4^«ty< V4'*' «£ *%**£ i ’’ \ ' i ■ /’.* ' fnV/4WEi> A.h 4 4 i ■ *: t ' > ti'. *i Г * 1 _j1 m.. liaSi OMyilfUlt Нм t^l l* iwk; ftw! йя ewi* .? Ж^£ Л! i ■: к|§У|{^й ШбА; FW c*, t j. 4£.г*г1.ая51«17? г||,»4й*Цг»! ' I jmlc4b{№£; L‘ ': Rv, Nt. Я**Л" ■ {Ь.шьъъ i fc«PM? ypa; i%tw4t : № * ivj u ci 1 % Rw rjfi %4ti la tu isjl ■ t*%| Ь l> I _ 00Ш ^ ’ KficnyfMt'ituititeVii ’ , tWrt'vrtl tiliflitljM! l                     Teacher's materials       ЕШ 5 Communication     f     Edible feoc/ief'sootes     i     SsiStji f109»C|     1 '     ‘ «а Ifc1     ■ Ум Mjm ЛъЦ)   DVD and DVD Teacher's Book The DVD contains programmes which complement the topics in the Student's Book. There is ai r: wide variety of formats including interviews, -::: profiles/ documentaries and video diaries; The DVD Teacher's Book со nitairis related tea chi rig notes and photo со piabie worksheets;:: * * * v - r;     iwwWnnsideo ut.het; y; - • * - ■ • •; *; -;; ^; nsjdeout.net to.find out more ^efails/abdOt the‘course arid its authors.. ^^new'miagazine: style ‘website provides. fgjp/Mdable resources and more: ^B^fmatioh; about 'New Inside Out i r CEFCfl«ekl]lt» rf4iausiM: n{< U}ti а«аг', с«! 0(П*{Ь}оиМ1М! г.нрс$з? «1 «смоляка Coamwi Euc^f an Ргаим-Пйяа » (мп> 'амл$ ol th& ksy*ords and phases • sample seniences stoning toe \vwd3 and ptvase s In oorie4 • asoonmafycftoeGfammar references prcmiwaSon of the He> ' wads and phases Reader* ttofhiheet* кдажоолтни joy tanuiipMtnJSiSfy tntnayo-^ojaH^iit.YlrtiK* ОЛ               ^Website-;;.:     * I       CajMiudlai ЯШгМи(ЬМ1‘3(ГИГ* ii Ь«> 1М toi ЯСЛЗ Hi WOJ IntOK-W *Jt! \ mmiM-Mli, Domvjw v.i сан siuO-ii PD" * ам (ло ол sr-at гм и! trvii.-ам on №: нсил     I     xiii     A                 Intermediate students have already come across most of the basic grammar structures and, while their use of the present perfect might by wildly inaccurate, they can lose motivation if the teacher insists on going over what for them is 'learned' language. Coupled with this, their vocabulary probably extends to a passive knowledge of 2000-2500 of the most frequent words. Research tells us that 'knowing' the 2500, most frequent words means you can understand over 80% of everything you read - which is sufficient for many students. In other words, being familiar with most of the grammar and knowing enough vocabulary to 'get by' in most situations the intermediate student is already a fairly competent language learner. Breaking through to the next level requires considerable time, energy and dedication. In Neiv Inside Out Intermediate we've tried to get the balance right between challenging students with new grammar and vocabulary and providing important recycling and consolidation work in more familiar areas. In particular, there is a clear emphasis on learning new vocabulary - the key to breaking through the intermediate ceiling. A relentless focus on meaning, and in particular how students can make their own meanings with the language, is built into every stage of the learning process. It's this core feature of Inside Out which helps students maintain their enthusiasm and motivation. Right from the start Every teacher has their own way of setting up their classroom, interacting with their students and conducting their lessons. Here are a few things that we have found useful to bear in mind. The right atmosphere It's important to do everything you can to creating a supportive learning environment. Start by memorising every student's name and learn as much information as you can about them. Make sure students learn each other's names too and that they all get to know things about each other early on in the course. Think of appropriate ways you could help foster good classroom dynamics.   Pay attention to how you respond to students both individually and collectively. Make sure you find time to 'chat' to individual students or small informal groups of students before or after class. More formally, it's a good idea to devote at least one lesson per term to counsel, your students individually and discuss their progress. \ Even at intermediate level students are often shy and under-confident about speaking in class. It takes a great deal of courage to open your mouth and say something in the very early stages of a course. For this reason, students are encouraged to work in pairs and groups so they can rehearse the language 'in private' rather then be immediately required to speak in the more intimidating arena of the class. Always give your students time to think. It's perfectly normal to have moments of silence while students absorb and process new information, write down new vocabulary from the board, or think about their answers. Don't be afraid of the 'pregnant pause'* The right environment Your classroom might be the only exposure to English that students get. Make that exposure as rich as you can by decorating the walls with maps and posters. Have V ' several monolingual dictionaries available to refer to - a class set if possible. Also, try to have a selection of English books, newspapers and magazines lying around that students can pick up and browse before and after lessons. Here are some further ideas: Keep a 'wordbox’ on your table where words or phrases that come up in the lesson are recorded on strips of paper arid put in the box. Invite the students to record the words for you. They can then be used in a variety of quick revision games in subsequent lessons. Alternatively, you could institute the 'Class Scribe' idea. One student in the class is given the role of recording any new language that comes up during the lesson that isn't necessarily the target language of tlia t lesson. This unique record is then kept in a folder in the class and provides the teacher with valuable data for revision activities. The role of class scribe is rotated so that each student gets a turn at being responsible for recording the lesson. This shared responsibility can help promote positive group dynamics. • Promote simplified graded readers. There is a huge selection of readers available at the intermediate level: both simplified classics and original stories. Many of them now come as Talking books' with CDs. Ask the students to always bring their reader to the lesson and occasionally set aside a ten-minute slot for them to talk about what they are reading. Alternatively, just devote ten minutes to silent reading. This is invaluable input. Most intermediate students will be best suited to readers where the basic vocabulary is in the range 1600-2000 words. Make sure the students understand that it is better to read and enjoy ten easy books than struggle through one difficult one. Get your students hooked on books! • Use English in the classroom, IPs very tempting to slip into the students' language - particularly if you are teaching in a monolingual situation. Try only to use Ы as an absolute last resort: an occasional quick translation or brief explanation. The right learning skills Students will always benefit from help with learning strategies. Here are some thoughts: • Encourage students to ask questions about language, If you have created the right atmosphere in your classroom then students will be more likely to take an active approach in their own learning). and this is important. Students should never feel intimidated about asking questions. Spend time encouraging students to experiment with how they record words and phrases from the lesson. Get them to draw the word rather than HSV; [2].translate it. They're then associating the word with 'SK\The concept rather than with another word. Make jKfsure they note the part of speech - verb, noun, adjective, etc. Tell them to find a way of noting the pronunciation of the word, either using phonemic

G£ script (in the back of the Student's Book) or by ^developing their own system* Ask them to write ^^c.qmplete personalised sentences putting the new or phrase in a real context and thereby making шИЩоге memorable. arУls a very important language learning! S§SI|toJw^^ most students will buy one. Usually prefer a bilingual dictionary as this hiem with a quick translation of the word gpIpf^P.^ed, However, at the intermediate level they seriously about investing in a good ®^^isual dictionary. The Vocabulary Extra end of each unit in New Inside Out ahave been designed to give students tionary practice and make them, aware 'extra' information that is available л ingual dictionary. amount of practice most successful lessons consist new inPub and then a lot FoV Ibis reason, we've tried to: & ^МШ1Й1еЬсе activities in New Inside Ou both in the Student's Book and in the other supporting components. But there is never enough time in the lessons alone. Always set homework, even if it's just reading a chapter from a reader, and make homework feedback or correction an integral part of the lesson. The top 10 activities for intermediate students These tried and trusted activities can be used as lead-ins, warmers, fillers, pair-forming activities, or for revision and recycling. Most of them require very little or no preparation and can be adapted to cover a wide variety of different language points. The emphasis is on vocabulary revision as we all know that it's only through repeated exposure to new words and expressions that students are likely to transform 'input' into 'intake'. You may be familiar with some of the ideas and others may be new. In any event, we hope they provide a useful extension to your teaching repertoire. They certainly get used and re-used in our own classrooms! It's always useful to have a stock of small white cards and access to a collection of pictures. Magazine pictures are ideal, and can be filed in alphabetical order according to topics. 1 Board bingo Aim This activity is good for revising any type of vocabulary. Preparation Write down twelve to fifteen words you want to revise on tlie board. They could be words from the last lesson, words from fiie unit you've just finished or a random selection of words covering the whole term. Procedure • Ask the students to choose five of the words and write them down. When they've done that, tell the students that you're going to read out dictionary definitions of the words in random order and that they should cross out their words if they think they hear the definition. When they've crossed out all five words, they shout Bingo! Make sure you keep a record of the word definitions you call out so that you can check the students' answers. * If you teach a monolingual class, you could read out a translation of each word rather than an English definition. Alternatively, you could turn it into a pronunciation exercise by working on the recognition of phonemic script. Hold up cards with phonemic transcriptions of the words in random order. Students cross out their words if they think they've seen the corresponding phonemic transcription. 2 My criteria Aim Tliis activity can be used to review almost any vocabulary. Preparation Choose up to ten words that you want to revise. You might want to start with recognisable lexical sets and then move onto groups of random words. Procedure о Write tire words on the board in no particular order. Put the students in pairs or small groups. Tire activity consists of writing out the words in a specific order according to a particular criteria of the students' choosing. Each pair or group keeps their criteria secret. They then give their list to another pair or group who have to work out what they think die criteria is. * For example, let's say you want to revise words for clothes from Unit 12, You write eight items on the board, e.g. pinstripe suit, leather belt, woolly jumper, cotton hoody, silk blouse, fur hat, stripy top, suakeskin boots. The students then rearrange the list according to a criteria that they have thought of. The criteria can be anything from 'alphabetical order': i.e. 1) leather belt, 2) silk blouse, 3) suakeskin hoots, etc, to 'warm': i.e. 1) fur hat, 2) woolhj jumper, 3) pinstripe suit, etc. * Sometimes the criterion clearly suggests only one possible order (i.e. 'alphabetical order'). If the criterion is 'warm', then the order of items might be open to debate. This is fine and can lend to some interesting discussion. To get the students used to this activity, in die first instance you might want to give them different criteria to choose from. Here are some more possible criteria for clothes: comfortable, smart, expensive, useful, things l wear. Alternatively, you might want to give them just one criterion - one where the order is not obvious - and see if each group comes up with the same order. * 3 Category dictation Aim This activity can be adapted to review almost any vocabulary It can also be used to review certain pronunciation and grammar points. Preparation Choose the language you want to review and devise a way of categorising it into two or more categories, Procedure • Write the category headings on the board and ask die students to copy them onto a piece of paper. Two simple categories is usually best. More than diree can get complicated. Then dictate the words (10-12 maximum) slowly and clearly, and ask the students to write them down in the correct category. • For example, you might want to revise the names for different jobs as a lead-in to Hie Listening on page 52, in Unit 6. Your categories might be jobs you do inside! and jobs you do outside. So, write the following on the board and ask the students to copy it down.   • Then dictate the words: e.g. an archaeologist, a journalist, a train driver, a lawyer, a vet, etc. The students write down the words in the correct category. When you've dictated 10 or 12 words, ask students to compare their lists. When they've done tliis, ask them to call out their answers and write them on the board in the correct category, so that they can check the spelling. Alternatively, you could ask the students to take it in turns to write the answers on the board. Here are some more ideas for categories: 1 Revise adjectives, (Unit 2) Suggested categories: ‘gradabk' or '«on-gradable', 1 feel... or It is... (e.g. I feel bored but H is boring). 2 Revise sports. (Unit 2) Suggested categories: Spoils with a ball and Sports without a bail; Sports you play in teams and Sports you play individually; Sports you use '50' with or Sports yon use 'play' with. 3 Revise family words. (Unit3) Suggested categories: Adult? or Female, Have or Don't have, 4 Revise more adjectives. (Unit 3) Suggested categories: Positive or Negative; Adjectives that take the prefix '1 in- or Adjectives that don't take the prefix 5 Revise food (Unit 5) ^ Suggested categories: Countable nouns or Uncountable^ nouns; Can freeze or Can't freeze; Can buy in tins or:.: |jj Can't buy in tins; Have in my fridge or Never have in my fridge.   4 Whose dialogue? Aim To imagine what people in pictures are saying to one another and to write a short dialogue. Preparation You will need a selection of eight to ten magazine pictures. Each picture should show two people who could be talking to one another. Try to get pictures of as widely varying contexts as possible. Procedure • Divide the students into pairs or small groups. Display the pictures on the board, on the wall or on the floor where everybody can see them. Ask each pair or group to secretly choose a picture, but without pointing or touching it. The students then write a short dialogue between the people in the picture they've chosen. When they've finished, ask them to act out their dialogue to the other members of the class without indicating which picture it's based on. The other students guess which picture the dialogue goes with. • This activity is particularly suited to revising some of the functional language from the Useful phrases sections in the Student's book. You could write six or more useful phrases on the board and tell the students that their dialogues must include at least hVj one (or two, or three) of them. The Useful phrases could be part of a recognisable set (e.g. Unit 5; Do haven reservation? A tabkfor two, please, ftvogin °f.lce on it* She can be a bit talkative, We're making good *! *т> Oh, Vm sorry to hear that, etc.) ^Alternatively, you could choose any ten to twelve Уоц want to revise and put them on the b’оard. Then tell the students that they must include Л ^1Iee (or four, or five) of the words in their   5 Random letters Aim This activity is good for revising any type of vocabulary. Preparation None Procedure • Ask the students to call out any seven letters from the alphabet, (it doesn't have to be seven letters: any tiring between seven and twelve is fine.) Write the letters scattered on the board. Then ask the students in pairs to think of a word beginning with each letter on tire board. The most obvious criteria is to revise words from a specific lexical set that you have taught recently. Alternatively, you could simply ask them for words they've noted down in lessons over the past two weeks, Another possibility would be to find the most interesting words they can from tire Student Book unit that you've just finished. If the lexical set you want them to revise is particularly rich, you could ask tire students to think of as many words for each letter as they can in say three minutes: make it into a contest to find die most words. There are lots of possible variations using different criteria for words from the letters on the board. Here are a few: Use the same criteria as above but ask the students to think of words ending with the letter on the board. Ask the students to write only nouns, or adjectives or irregular verbs or some other part of speech. Ask the students to write only words with three syllables or words with the same vowel sounds. Ask students to write only words that start with the same letter in their own language or only words that start with a different letter. 6 Five favourites Aim This activity is good for revising any words learned recently. Preparation None Procedure * Students look back through their lesson notes for the last two weeks and select from the words they've recorded five words that they think are particularly useful. They compare their list with a partner and together they produce a common list of five words from the combined list of ten. To do this they'll have to argue for and against words on the combined list until they are both satisfied that they have the most useful five. * If you wanted to continue the activity, you could then have each pair join up with another pair as a group of four and repeat the procedure. Depending on tire size of your class, you might continue until you had established a list of 'five favourites' for the whole class. * The value of this activity lies in the students looking back through their notes, choosing the words and then arguing for them to be part of the combined list. The whole procedure gives them valuable repeat exposure to words recently learned. ° A possible extension activity after each pair has formed their common list of five words is to collect the lists and redistribute them so that each pair has a different list. The pairs then write a dialogue or short story incorporating the five words they have on the list they've just received. You could then- ask them to read out their dialogues or stories and the other students guess what the five listed words were. 7 Crosswords Aim This activity is good for revising lexical sets and can help with spelling. Preparation Choose a lexical set you want to revise. For example, sports (Unit 2J, nouns that collocate with ’do’ (or 'make') (Unit A), food (Unit 5), clothes (Unit 12), etc. Procedure • Students work in pairs. They'll need a piece of paper, preferably graph paper with squares on. • Choose a topic, for example, Food. • Student A writes 'Across' words, and Student В writes 'Down' words. • It's a good idea to provide tire first word across, and make sure that it's a long one (e.g. vegetables)., Student В then adds another food word down the V paper from top to bottom. Tibs word must intersect with the food word written across tire page. • Student A then writes another food word across that intersects with the word Student В has written down. Students continue taking it in turns to write in their words.   Students build up a crossword until they can't drink of any more food words. (You could make it into a game by saying that the last person to write a food word is the winner.) Note that students must leave one square between each word - this is why It's better and clearer to use squared paper. At this level, with a topic as big as 'food', it might be advisable to narrow the category, e.g./ffdf and vegetables, meat and fish, or food yon pat in the fridge, etc. 9 Making sentences   Aim This activity can be used to revise almost any language. Preparation Tliink of the vocabulary, pronunciation or grammar point you want to revise. Procedure * Write five words on the board and ask students which one is the odd one out, The students then explain why. This usually relates to the meaning of the word. Here sifgw is the odd one out because the other words are all dairy products. Note that it doesn't matter if the students can't explain in perfect English why sugar is the odd one out. The important thing is that they're looking at and thinking about the words you want them to revise. You can use this format to practise and revise all sorts of things. Here are some examples: 1 For meaning: sister / nephew / daughter j wife / mother nephew is the odd one out because he's a man. The other words describe women. 2 For spelling: pen / book / bag / phone / diary n.. diary is the odd one out because you spell the lb plural ies. The other words you just add s. For pronunciation: sounds A/I/H/J/K / is the odd one out because the vowel sound is different, pronunciation: stress Hоspita 1 / banana / potato / Italian / computet hospital is the odd one out because the stress is ----- ■ ----- v_____ Tire other words have the 'stress on tire second syllable. 'allocation: da or make H homework / the washing / an appointment > gaining course / the shopping is the odd one out because you use the others you use do. ^grammar: promise / want / can't stand / offer ^ i.d is die odd one out because it is gerund - the other words are ilMSi hy ibe fo-infinitive. students what the criteria is, about meaning' or 'tliink about the activity a little more of writing the words on the Aim This activity is good for revising any type of vocabulary. It works best if the words are a fairly random selection and not part of a tight lexical set. Preparation Choose 12 words you want to revise and write them in a circle (like a dockface) on the board. Procedure • Students work in pairs. They choose two or more of the words and try to make a sentence with them. Example sentences: My brother is doing |yo> gn| in Ute\pnrk\. The \$noxoboardei eats organic vegetables\ on j Friday blue neck   * The students then read out their sentences and you connect the words they have used on the board. You can correct the grammar as necessary or you can make it more difficult for the students by only accepting grammatically correct sentences. (You could make it into a game by saying that the pair who form the sentence including the highest number of words on the board is the winner.) It doesn't matter how bizarre the sentences are, the important tiring is that students spend time looking at and remembering the vocabulary. 10 Spell check Aim To revise any vocabulary and focus particularly on spelling. Preparation Choose the words you want to review. They can be lexical sets or words at random- Eight to ten words is best. Procedure *> There are various different ways you can approach this, but the following four ways seem to work best; 1 The missing letter Student work in pairs. Write up the words with a letter missing from each one, e.g, s/штл, courgette, raspberry, etc. The students have to decide which is the missing letter in each case and rewrite the word correctly. Then give a definition. 2 The extra letter Students work in pairs. Write up the words with an extra letter in each one, e.g. unfaithful}, sosciable, totlemni, etc. The students have to decide which is the extra letter in each case and rewrite the word correctly. Then give a definition. 3 The wrong letter Students work in pairs. Write up the words with a wrong letter in each one, e.g. nefltew, cousen, ueece, etc. Tire students have to decide which is the wrong letter in each case and rewrite the word correctly. Then give a definition. 4 Anagrams Students work in pairs. Write up the words as anagrams. The students have to unscramble the anagram and rewrite the word correctly. This is the most challenging version of 'Spell check', so it's best to give the students a due, for example: 'these are all ways of describing hair', e.g. Uircy, ssemy, cidengev, etc. (curly, messy, receding). Then give a definition. Ш1ЩМЩ Anecdote tasks New Inside Out Intermediate includes a number of extended speaking tasks, where students tackle a longer piece of discourse. We've called these 'Anecdotes'. They are based on personal issues, for instance, memories, stories, people you know. When you learn a musical instrument, you can't spend ail your time playing scales and exercises: you also need to learn whole pieces in order to see how music is organised. Anecdotes give students a chance to get to grips with how discourse is organised. We have found the following strategies helpful in getting our students to tell their Anecdotes. 1 Choose global topics that everybody can relate to One of the main objectives of an Anecdote is to encourage students to experiment with and hopefully grow more competent at using language at the more demanding end of their range. It therefore seems only fair to ask them to talk about subjects they know something about With familiar subject matter students, can concentrate on how they're speaking as well as wl(, they're speaking about The eight Anecdote topics in New Inside Out Intermediate have been carefully selected to appeal to the widest range of students, whilst at the same time, fitting in to the context of the unit. Unit 1 A friend who is different from you Unit 2 A time you were in a dangerous./exciting situation Unit 4 A party you've been to Units Your childhood memories Units A journey you've been on Unit 9 A film you enjoyed Unit 10 An activity you did as a child Unit 12 Somebody you met for the first time recently     As soon as you have got to know your students well enough, you'll be able to choose other Anecdote topics suited to their particular interests and experiences. 2 Allow sufficient preparation time Students need time to assemble their thoughts and think about the language they'll need. The Anecdotes are set up through evocative questions. Students read or listen to a planned series of questions and choose what specifically they'll talk about; shyer students can avoid matters they feel are too personal. This student preparation is a key stage and should not be rushed. Research, by Peter Skehan and Pauline Foster among others, has shown that learners who plan for tasks attempt more ambitious and complex language, hesitatfpi less and make fewer basic errors. *1УЬ The simplest way to prepare students for an Anecdote. is to ask them to read the list of questions in the book ц and decide which they want to talk about. This could щ be done during class time or as homework preparation ■ aift йиж* sjtf& niM > 1 * w4(r^> Vv? ii c^.vi1 ли м< > ^кльчл'г for the following lesson. Ask them to think about the language they'll need. Sample answers are provided in the Student's Book to give the students some extra help. Encourage them to use dictionaries and make notes - but not to write out what they'll actually say. Finally, put them into pairs to exchange Anecdotes. A variation is to ask the students to read the questions in the book while, at the same time, listening to you read them aloud. Then ask them to prepare in detail for the task, as above. Alternatively, ask the students to close their books - and then to close their eyes. Ask them to listen to the questions as you read them aloud and think about what they evoke. Some classes will find this a more involving process. It also allows you to adapt the questions to your class: adding new ones or missing out ones you think inappropriate. After the reading, give them enough time to finalise their preparation before starting the speaking task, 3 Monitor students and give feedback It's important for students to feel that their efforts are being monitored by the teacher. Realistically, it's probably only possible for a teacher to monitor and give feedback to one or two pairs of students during each Anecdote activity. It's therefore vital that the: teacher adopts a strict rota system, and makes sure that i*everyone in the class is monitored over the course of iMderm. Constructive feedback helps students improve htheir delivery. g*Pr°vide a 'niodel anecdote' iiSJM.t^ always useful for the students to hear a model Jgg^^necdote at some stage during the Anecdote task ЙЙВШМВ'^Ьe most obvious model is you, the teacher. ^^^lt«natively, you might ask a teaching colleague to talk to the students. For every Anecdote New Inside Out Intermediate there's a model on the CD with an accompanying task in the Ж Jsgf§/s ШМЛ 5 Repeat the same anecdote with a new partner at regular intervals Consider going back to Anecdotes and repeating them in later classes. Let the students know that you're going to do this. This will reassure them that you're doing it on purpose, but more importantly, it will mean that they'll be more motivated to dedicate some time and thought to preparation. When you repeat the task, mix the class so that each student works with a new partner, i.e. one who has not previously heard the Anecdote. In our experience, most students are happy to listen to their partner's Anecdotes. If, however, any of your students are reluctant listeners, you might think about giving them some sort of 'listening task'. Here are three examples: ° Ask the listener to tick the prompt questions that tire 'Anecdote teller' answers while telling the Anecdote. • Ask the listener to time tire 'Anecdote teller'. In Tend ting Collocations {page 91) Michael Lewis suggests reducing the time allowed to deliver the Anecdote each time it's repeated: for example, in the first instance the student has five minutes; for the second telling they have four minutes; and the third three minutes. • Ask the listener to take brief notes about the Anecdote and write them up as a summary for homework. Then give the summary to the 'Anecdote teller' to check. The pedagogic value of getting students to re-tell Anecdotes - repeat a 'big chunk' of spoken discourse -cannot be over-stated. Repeating complex tasks reflects real interactions. We all have our set pieces: jokes, stories, and we tend to refine and improve them as we retell them. Many students will appreciate the opportunity to do the same tiling in their second language. Research by Martin Bygate among others has shown that given this opportunity students become more adventurous and at the same time more precise in the language they use. You can also use the Anecdotes to test oral proficiency and thereby add a speaking component to accompany the tests in the Teacher's Book.     j V classroom interaction//.': *: */ /*-: '// j jV. '*■ /.' * j ; ^cemmuhicatiye activity//// у *// //.' j V context /: ////: ':;; /■ //■; /:; -V-'■ /: ] • dnit:;:: V. / /V v /' /- / ■. * - /: '/.'! о dynamics: groiip, classroom.. j fluency V/: 4.-V- j e. focus on form'* ‘*/*; /; /-/.j '. *■ function/V; V: ///*/*////'; // \-;; //■ '■ *' ■ /- | • •/grammar teachihg: ‘;::; -^;;:: V^^V; V> V. •'•.. ■ V;; learner-centred, instruction, learner-centred ness ] learner style: * ’**■; //] 0 listening./ ■ /**.: /.:..*. V: / - / ■ ■ j '• motivation / / V/ /; 't I • noticing: / ■ /. V: /personalization /■ ////•/// //; / ■ / ■ • practice -//// _///// /; /-- - j i-proriiindatidn teaching-: /;. - /: ': *.*/'*'*-; i v reading; -'./’*. //■; ■ /////; /.//‘: j • ' speaking.: - ••./• ••. / /*.. *. { . task.. /.; / Y: ‘.‘; j «vocabulary teaching.'. /- j • writing:; Note: SLA - Second Language Acquisition Classroom interaction is the general term for what goes on between the people in the classroom, particularly when it involves language. In traditional classrooms, most interaction is initiated by the teacher, and learners either respond individually, or in unison. Teacher-centred interaction of this kind is associated with transmtssiva teaching, such as a lecture or presentation, where the teacher transmits die content of the lesson to the learners. In order to increase the amount of student involvement and interaction, teacher-learner interaction is oi(combined with pairwork and groupwork, where learners interact among themselves in pairs or small groups. Other kinds of interaction include mingling or mining. Pairwork and groupwork are associated with a more learner-centred approach, Rather than passively receiving the lesson content, the learners are actively engaged in using language and discovering things for themselves. The value of pairwork and groupwork has been reinforced by the belief that interaction facilitates language learning. Some would go as far as to say that it is all that is required. The potential for classroom interaction is obviously constrained by such factors as the number of students,. the size of the room, the furniture, and the purpose or type of activity. Not all activities lend themselves l to pairwork or groupwork. Some activities, such i as reading, am best done as in dividual work. On the =| other hand, listening activities {such as listening^ /J an audio recording, or to the teacher) favour a tmoui щ class format, as do grammar presentations. Tire whole || class is also an appropriate form of organization Ц when review big the results of an activity, as, for‘: f| example, when spokespersons from each group are Ц reporting on the results of a discussion or survey.: /Щ The success of any classroom interaction will alsqjl depend on tire extent to which tire learners knawjig what they are meant to be doing and why, wHchJjj in turn depends on how dearly and efficiently thf|| interaction has been set up. Pair- and groupwork cah]|| be a complete waste of time if learners are neitire^ properly prepared for it, nor sure of its purpose outcome. ЩЙ Finally, the success of pair- and groupwork depend on the kind of group dynamics that have ЬеЦ| established. Do tire students know one another? Щ they happy working together? Do they mind \уогкЩ| without constant teacher supervision? Establishing a productive classroom dynamic may involve making decisions as to who works with whom. It may also mean deliberately staging the introduction of different kinds of interactions, starting off with the more controlled, teacher-led interactions before, over time, allowing learners to work in pairs and finally in groups. collocation VOCABULARY If two words collocate, they frequently occur together. The relation between die words may be grammatical, as when certain verbs collocate with particular prepositions, such as depend on, account for, abstain from, or when a verb, like make, take, or do, collocates with a noun, as in make an arrangement, take advantage, do the shopping. The collocation may also be lexical, as when two content words regularly co-occur, as in a broad hint, a narrow escape {but not *a wide hint or tight escape). The strength of the collocation can vary: a broad street or a narrow path are weak collocations, since both elements can co-occur with lots of other words: a broad river, a busy street, etc, Bivad hint and narimv escape are stronger. Stronger still are combinations (where one element rarely occurs without tire other, as in moot point, slim pickings and scot free. Strongest of all are those where both elements never or rarely occur without the other, such as dire straits and spick and span. These have acquired tire frozen status oifixed expressions. шь 1 Unsurprisingly, learners lack intuitions as to which words go with which, and this accounts for many errors, such as You can completely enjoy it (instead of thoroughly), On Saturday we made shopping {instead of " fjpmmnt), and We went the incorrect way {for wrong). Using texts to highlight particular collocations, and teaching ipinew words in association with their most frequent ^^collocations are two ways of approaching the problem. l^iNpwadays learners' dictionaries also include useful ^ioUocational information, such as this entry from the ЩфЩаспиНап English Dictionary for Adzmnced Learners: ШЩиппсahve activity methodology ^^^Icdmmunicative activity is one in which real ЛЩЩ1Еигиса^011 occurs. Communicative activities that generation of classroom activities rg^d in response to the need for a more ^^nicative approach In tire teaclring of second their more evolved form as tasks, ^^ff^icative activities are central to task-based Ttl6y attempt to import into a practice key features of 'real-life' communication, ^lnsss' speakers are motivated by a l^igative goal (such as getting information, giving instructions) and not need to display the correct use of ТЩЩзг Us own sake M ackiev e a purpose, speakers need to *s as much need to listen as to еаШйМшг*! -.-. i r* Г; 3-Г -V. • negotiation: following from the above, they may need to check and repair the communication in order to be understood by each other • unpredictability: neither the process, nor the outcome, nor the language used in the exchange, is entirely predictable e heterogeneity; participants can use any communicative means at their disposal; in other words, they are not restricted to the use of a pre­specified grammar item. And, in the case of spoken language in particular: • synchronicity: the exchange takes place in real time The best known communicative activity is the m/ormat/ongap activity. Here, the informs donnecessary to complete the task is either in the possession of just one of the participants, or distributed among diem. In order to achieve the goal of the task, therefore, tlie learners have to share the information that they have. For example, in a describe-aud-dimo activity, one student has a picture which is hidden from his or her partner. The task is for that student to describe the picture so that the partner can accurately draw it. In a spot-the-dijference task, both students of a pair have pictures {or texts) that are the same apart from some minor details. The goal is to identify drese differences. In a jigsaw activity, each member of a group has different information. One might have a bus timetable, another a map, and another a list of hotels. They have to share this information in order to plan a weekend break together. Information gap activities have been criticized on the grounds that they lack authenticity. Nor are information gap activities always as productive as might be wished: unsupervised, learners may resort to communication strategies in order to simplify the task. A more exploitable information gap, arguably, is the one that exists between the learners themselves, ie, what they don't know - but might like to know - about one another (-> personalization). context LINGUISTICS The context of a language item is its adjacent language items. In die absence of context, it is often impossible to assign exact meaning to an item. A sentence like Ben takes the bus to work, for example, could have past, present, or future reference, depending on the context: I know this chap called Ben. One day Ben takes the bus to work, and just as,.. Most days Ben takes the bus to work, but sometimes he rides his bike... If Вен takes the fins to work tomorrow, he'll be late, because there's a strike... Likewise, a sentence like You use it like this is meaningless in the absence of a context. By tire same token, a word or sentence in one context can have a very different meaning in another. Tire sign NO BICYCLES in a public park means something different to NO BICYCLES outside a bicycle rental shop. It is sometimes necessary to distinguish       between different kinds of context. On the one hand, there is the context of the accompanying text, sometimes called the co-text. Tire co-text of this sentence, for example, includes the sentences dial precede and follow it, as well as the paragraph of which it forms a part. It is the co-text that offers clues as to the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary in a text. The situational context (also context of situation, context of use), on the other hand, is die physical and temporal setting in which an instance of language use occurs. The typical context for the spoken question Arc you being sewed? is in a shop, for example. Both co-text and context influence the production and interpretation of language. Discourse analysis studies the relationship between language and co­text, including the way that sentences or utterances are connected. Pragmatics studies the relationship between language and its contexts of use, including the way meaning can be inferred by reference to context factors. Various theories have been proposed in order to account for the ways that language choices are determined by contextual factors. One of the best known of these is Michael Halliday's systemic functional linguistics. Halliday distinguishes three variables in any context that systematically impact on language choices and which, together, determine a text's register: • tire field: what the language Is being used to talk about, and for what purposes * the fejjor: the participants in the language event, and their relationship «the mode: how language is being used in the exchange, eg is it written or spoken? For example, this short text shows the influence of all three factors: Do u fancy film either 2nite or 2moro? Call me. Tire field is 'making arrangements about leisure activities', hence the use of words like film, 2nite {tonight), Inioro (tomorrow). The tenor is one of familiarity and equality (accounting for the informal fancy and Are imperative: call me); and the mode is that of a written text message, which explains its brevity, its use of abbreviated forms (if, 2nite) and the absence of salutations. A change in any of these contextual factors is likely to have a significant effect on the text. Language learners, it is argued, need to know how these contextual factors correlate with language choices in order to produce language that is appropriate to the context. One way of doing this is to ask them to make changes to a text (such as tire text message above) that take into account adjustments to the field, tenor, or mode. drill METHODOLOGY A drill is repetitive oral practice of a language item, whether a sound, a word, a phrase or a sentence structure. Drills that are targeted at sentence structures are sometimes called pattern practice drills. Drills follow a prompt-response sequence, where the prompt usually comes from the teacher, and the students respond, either in chorus (a choral drill) or individually. An imitation drill simply involves repeating the prompt, as in: Teacher Urey have been watching TV, Student They have been watching TV. Asnfot/fiftioii drill requites the students to substitute one element of the pattern with the prompt, making any necessary adjustments; Teacher They have been watching TV. Student They have been watching TV. Teacher She Student She has been watching TV. Teacher 1 Student I have been watching TV. etc. A variable substitution drill is tire same, but the prompts are not restricted to one element of the pattern: Teacher They have been watching TV. / Student They have been watching TV. V Teacher She Student She has been watching TV. Teacher radio Student She has been listening to the radio. Teacher We Student We have been listening to the radio, etc. Drills were a defining feature of the audiolingual method, and were designed to reinforce good language 'habits'. The invention of language laboratories allowed sustained drilling without the need for a teacher to supply the prompts. With tine demise of audiotingualism, drilling fell from favour. However, many teachers - even those who subscribe to a communicative approach - feel the need for some form of repetition practice of the kind that drills provide. This may be for the purpose of developing accuracy, or as a form of fluer ' training, ie, in order to develop aufomaticK; ■ / Hence, communicative drills were developed. A communicative drill is still essentially repetitive,, and focuses on a particular structure or pattern,.; but it has an information gap element built in. Learners can perform the drill in pairs, or as a milling activity:. (—► classroom interaction) and they are required) to attend to what they hear as much as what they; say. The milling activity popularly known as FffJfil someone who... is one such activity. Students me setj the task of finding other students in the class who|| for example, can ride a horse, can speak FrencHJj can play the guitar, etc. They mill around, as king questions of the type Can you...? until they havgj asked all the other students their questions, and the® they report their findings. уШ dynamics: group, classroom methodology Dynamics are the actions and interactions, «■ гщ conscious and unconscious, that take place betw< ||& members of a group, whether the whole с1аз5щ sub-groups. Group dynamics are instrumental in forging a productive and motivating classroom environment. They are determined by such factors as: the composition of the group (including the age, sex, and relative status of the members, as well as their different attitudes, beliefs, learning styles and abilities); the patterns of relationships between members of the group, including how well they know each other, and the roles they each assume, such as group leader, spokesperson, etc; physical factors such as the size of the group and tire way it is seated; and the tasks that the group am set, eg: Does the task require everyone to contribute? Does it encourage co-operation or competition? Are the goals of the task clear to the group members? Ways that the teacher can promote a positive group (and class) dynamic include: о ensuring all class or group members can see and hear one another, and that they know (and use) each other's names «keeping groups from getting too big - three to six members is optimal • setting - or negotiating - dear rules for groupwork, such as using only the target language, giving everyone a turn to speak, allowing individuals to 'pass' if they don't want to say anything too personal • using 'ice-breaking' activities to encourage interaction, laughter, and relaxation • ensuring that group tasks are purposeful, interactive, and collaborative personalizing tasks, ie, setting tasks that involve ■ 'Л*-', tire sharing of personal experiences and opinions defining the roles and responsibilities within vthe group, and varying these regularly, eg by ..^ appointing a different spokesperson each time monitoring groupwork in progress, and being alert to any possible conflicts or tensions between ^members, and reconstituting groups, if necessary discussing the importance of groupwork.jvith learners, and getting feedback on group processes " " 'Ш. A eone is said to be fluent in a language, or to.^language fluently, it is generally understood djg are able to speak the language idiomatically ^fately, without undue pausing, without an dl? ^ccen^' anc*in a manner appropriate to the research into listeners' perceptions of that fluency is primarily the ability maintain speech in real time. To do speaker's are capable of: ШЦЩе pausing, ie: may be long but are not frequent ^ usuahy filled, eg with pause W(fSIB=£ Tw' you know, sort of occur at meaningful transition Intersections of clauses or than midway in a phrase nre many syllables and words llg^pguses - All of the above factors depend on the speaker having a well-developed grammar, an extensive vocabulary, and, crucially, a store of memorized chunks. Being able to draw on this store of chunks means not having to depend on grammar to construct each utterance from scratch. This allows the speaker to devote attention to other aspects of the interaction, such as planning ahead. Speakers also use a number of 'tricks* or production strategies to convey the illusion of fluency. One such strategy is disguising pauses by filling them, or by repeating a word or phrase. Some proponents of the communicative approach re-defined fluency so as to distinguish it from accuracy. Fluency came to mean 'communicative effectiveness', regardless of formal accuracy or speed of delivery. Activities that are communicative, such as information-gap activities, are said to be fluency- focused. This is the case even for activities that produce short, halting utterances. Separating accuracy and fluency, and defining the latter as communicative language use, is misleading, though. There are many speech events whose communicativeness depends on their accuracy. Air traffic control talk is just one. Moreover, many learners aspire to being more than merely communicative. Classroom activities that target fluency need to prepare the learner for real-time speech production. Learning and memorizing lexical chunks, including useful conversational gambits, is one approach. Drills may help here, as will some types of communicative activity that involve repetition. Research has also shown that fluency improves the more times a task is repeated. Fluency may also benefit from activities that manage to distract learners' attention away from formal accuracy so that they are not tempted to slow down. (This has been called 'parking their attention'). Some interactive and competitive language games have this effect. Drama activities, such ns roleplays, recreate conditions of real-time language use, and are therefore good for developing fluency. Finally, learners can achieve greater fluency from learning a repertoire of communication strategies, ie, techniques for getting around potential problems caused by a lack of the relevant words or structures. focus on form SLA When learners focus on form, they direct conscious attention to some formal feature of the language input. The feature may be the fact that the past of has is had, or that enjoy is followed by verb forms ending in -mg, or that adjectives do not have plural forms in English. The learners' attention may be self- directed, or it may be directed by the teacher or by another learner. Either way, it has been argued that a focus on form is a necessary condition for language learning. Simply focusing on the meaning of the input is not enough. Focusing on form is, of course, not a new idea: most teaching methods devote a great deal of time to the forms of the language, eg when new grammar items are presented. But the term focus on form captures the fact that this focus can, theoretically, occur at any stage in classroom instruction. Thus, correction, especially in the form of negative feedback, is a kind of focus on form. In fact, some researchers argue that the most effective form focus is that which arises incidentally, in the context of communication, as when the teacher quickly elicits a correction during a classroom discussion. This incidental approach contrasts with the more traditional and deliberate approach, where teaching is based on a syllabus of graded structures (or forms), and these are pre-taught in advance of activities designed to practise them. This traditional approach is called - by some researchers - a focus ou formS. function LINGUISTICS The function of a language item is its communicative purpose. Language is more than simply forms and their associated meanings (ie, usage). It is also the communicative uses to which these forms and meanings are put. These two sentences, for example, shave the same forms, but function quite differently: [in an email] Thank you for scurf/ng me the disk. [a notice in a taxi] Thank you for not smoking. The function of the first is expressing thanks, while the second is more like a prohibition. Likewise, tire same function can be expressed by different forms: fa notice in a taxi] Thank you for not smoking. fa sign in a classroom] No smoking. Thus, there is no one-to-one match between form and function. Assigning a function to a text or an utterance usually requires knowledge of the context in which the text is used. The study of how context and function are interrelated is called pragmatics. Communicative functions can be categorized very broadly and also at increasing levels of detail. The 'big7 functions, or macrofunctions, describe the way language is used in very general terms, These include the use of language for expressive purposes (eg poetry), for regut a lory purposes (eg for getting people to do things), for interpersonal purposes (eg for socializing), and for representational purposes (eg to inform). More useful, from tire point of view of designing language syllabuses, are microfunctions. These are usually expressed as speech acts, such as Agreeing and disagreeing, reporting, warning, apologizing, thanking, greeting, etc. Such categories form the basis of functional syllabuses, a development associated with the communicative approach. They often appear as one strand of a coursebook syllabus. Functions differ from notions in that the latter describe areas of meaning - such as ability, duration, quantity, fivqucncy, etc - rather than the uses to which these meanings are put. One way to teach functions is to adopt a 'phrasebook' approach, and teach useful ways of expressing common functions (what are called functional exponents), such as Would you like...? (inviting) and Could you..., please? (requesting). More memorable, though, is to teach these expressions in the contexts of dialogues, so that the functional exponents are associated not only with common situations in which they are used, but with related functions (such as accepting and refusing). The term function, in contrast to form, is also used in linguistics, specifically with regard to the functions of the different elements of a clause (such as subject and object). grammar teaching methodology Like tire word grammar itself, the topic of grammar teaching is a controversial one, and teachers often take opposing views. Historically, language teaching methods have positioned themselves along a scale from 'zero grammar' to 'total grammar', according to their approach to grammar teaching. Proponents of natural methods, who model their approach to teaching second languages on the way that first languages are acquired, reject any explicit teaching of grammar at all. (They may, however, teach according to a grammar syllabus, even if no mention of grammar as such is made in the classroom). Tins implicit approach is common both to the direct method and to audiolingualism. Through exposure to demonstrations, situations or examples, learners are expected to pick up the rules of gramma*- by inductive learning. At the other end of /v spectrum, there are approaches, such as grammar- translation, that adopt an explicit and deductive learning approach. From the outset, learners are presented with rules which they study and then practise. Occupying a midway point between zero grammar and total grammar is the approach called consciousness-raising. Instead of being given rules, learners are presented with language data which challenge them to re-think (and restructure) their existing mental grammar. This data might take the form of input that has been manipulated in some way. For example, pairs of sentences, such as the following, have to be matched to pictures, forcing learners to discriminate between them, and, in theory, notice the difference (-+ noticing): The Queen drove to the airport. The Queen was driven to the airport.. (This is sometimes called a grammar interpretation tarh i or structured input.) hr order to do the task, learnt^ have to process not just tire individual words, but also their grammatical form. That is why this approach to teaching grammar is sometimes called processing Щ Hjsfmcfroji. There are other researchers who argue: § that it is by means of manipulating tire learner's output, eg through productive practice, that mental; ^ restructuring is best effected. The communicative approach accommodate: *! different approaches to grammar teaching^ Proponents of task-based learning, for example^ argue tirat, if the learner is engaged in solving! problems using language, then the mental gramma^ will develop of its own accord. However, advocate| of the weaker version of the communicative Щ (and tire version that is most widespread) justify^ role for the pre-teaching of grammar in advance production. This view finds support in co£ L" '° learning theory, which suggests that consclpi|| attention to grammatical form (called focus on speeds up language learning, and is a necessary corrective against premature fossilization. There is some debate, though, as to whether this form focus should be planned or incidental. Incidental grammar teaching occurs when the teacher deals with grammar issues as and when they come up, eg in the form of correction, or task feedback. In this way (it is argued) grammar teaching follows the learners' own 'syllabus'. Such an approach attempts to address one of tire dilemmas of grammar teaching: the fact that t