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Further developments






Ivanov and Toporov also schematically periodised various stages of development of Slavic mythology, attempting to show how it evolved from the original pantheon:

· The first subsequent development occurred after the Proto-Slavs had split into East, West, and South Slavs. Each branch of the Slavic family devised various feminine deities of household (e.g. Mokosh), and deities associated with crafts, agriculture, and fertility (e.g. Rod and Chur). Deities such as Hors and Simargl are sometimes interpreted as the East Slavic borrowings from their Iranian neighbours.

· At the level of abstract personification of divine functions, we have such concepts as Pravda / Krivda (Right/Wrong), Dobra Kob / Zla Kob (Good Fortune/Evil Fortune). These concepts, found in many Slavic fairy tales, are presumed to have originated at a time when old myths were already being downgraded to the level of legends and stories. Loius Leger pointed out that various Slavic words describing success, destiny, or fortune are all connected with the ancient Slavic word for God — " bog". Although used to denote the God of Christianity, the word is of pagan origin and quite ancient. It originates from the Proto-Indo-European root *bhag (meaning fortune), being cognate to Avestic baga and Sanskrit bhagah (epithets of deities).

· The next level of development is a mythologisation of historical traditions. Beginning in pagan times, it continued well after the advent of Ñhristianity. It is characterised by tales and songs of legendary heroes, ranging from purely legendary founders of certain tribes, such as the stories about Lech, Czech, and Rus, to quite historical persons such as the 15th century Croatian-Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus or the Serbian Prince Marko, who were both immortalised in folk legend or poetry. Russian bylinas about bogatyrs, Polish legends of Krak the Dragonslayer, Czech legends about Libuš e, and the foundation of Prague all fall into this category. Various elements of these tales will still reveal elements of old myths (such as a hero slaying a dragon, a faint echo of an ancient concept of a cosmic battle between Perun the Thunderer and the serpentine Veles).

· On an even lower level, certain mythical archetypes evolved into fairy-tale characters. These include Baba Yaga, Koschei the Immortal, Nightingale the Robber, Vodyanoy, Zmey Gorynych, and so on. At this point of development, one can hardly speak of mythology anymore. Rather, these are legends and stories which contain some fragments of old myths, but their structure and meaning are not so clear.

· The lowest level of development of Slavic mythology includes various groups of home or nature spirits and magical creatures, which vary greatly amongst different Slavic nations. Mythic structure on this level is practically incomprehensible, but some of the beliefs nevertheless have a great antiquity. As early as the 5th century, Procopius mentioned that Slavs worshipped river and nature spirits, and traces of such beliefs can still be recognised in the tales about vilas, vampires, witches, and werewolves.


Practical Class 3

Culture of the Kievan Rus’

1. Kievan Rus’ in the context of European Medieval culture.

2. Cultural achievements of the “Golden Age” of Kievan Rus’.

3. Cultural heritage of “disintegration period”.

 

1. Medieval culture was a period in European culture of V–XV centuries. Kievan Rus’, a polity of East Slavs, was one of the biggest European Medieval states from the late of IX till the mid of XIII centuries.

The first state to arise among the Eastern Slavs. It took its name from the city of Kyiv, the seat of the grand prince from about 880 until the beginning of the 13th century. At its zenith, it covered a territory stretching from the Carpathian Mountains to the Volga River, and from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea. The state's rapid rise and development was based on its advantageous location at the intersection of major north-south and east-west land and water trade routes with access to two major seas, and favorable local conditions for the development of agriculture. In the end, however, the state's great size led to the development of centrifugal tendencies and local interests that limited its political and social cohesion. This, and its proximity to the Asian steppes, which left it vulnerable to invasions of nomadic hordes, eventually contributed to the decline of Kyivan Rus’.

In the 8th century, the territory of Kyivan Rus’ was inhabited by a number of tribes who shared a common proto-Slavic language, pagan beliefs, and life-style. The ancestors of the Ukrainians included the Polianians, Siverianians, Derevlianians, Dulibians, White Croatians, Ulychians, and Tivertsians. The proto-Russian Krivichians, Viatichians, and Radimichians and the proto-Belorussian Drehovichians also lived on the lands that eventually constituted Kyivan Rus’. The Polianians were the largest and most developed of the tribes; according to the Rus’ Primary Chronicle, their prince Kyi founded the city of Kyiv in the 6th century. None of the tribes, however, was able to create a viable state, and in the 9th century the Varangians from Scandinavia conquered the tribes and laid the groundwork for the Kyivan Rus’ state. The “Golden Age” of the Kievan Rus’ is associated with the reigns of Vladimir the Great and his son Yaroslav the Wise. In its zenith the state covered the territory from the Carpathian Mountains to the Volga River, and from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea. Decline of Kievan Rus’ culture was connected with the Mongol invasion (1237–1240).

Economic, political, and social base for Medieval culture was feudalism – a system of legal and military arrangement of society around holding the land in exchange for service and labor.

In the 8th–9th centuries Kyivan Rus' actively entered the orbit of Byzantine culture and in 988 adopted Christianity through Byzantium. In fact, Byzantine influence on Ukrainian territory began much earlier and was concentrated on the northern shores of the Black Sea, in such cities as Kerch and Chersonese Taurica. The earliest Kyivan churches built in the Byzantine style (such as the Church of the Tithes) did not survive the continual invasions of nomadic hordes. However, the Saint Sophia Cathedral, begun in 1037, has been preserved in relatively good condition. It represents a masterpiece of the art and architecture of Ukraine and Europe. According to the Rus' chronicles, Prince Volodymyr the Great imported the first architects and artists from Chersonese, and these together with the artists of Constantinople were the first creators of Kyivan mosaics and frescos

The political and social institutions of Kyivan Rus’.

From the 10th to the 12th century the Kyivan state underwent significant sociopolitical changes. Its original component tribes had no political tradition, and its first rulers viewed their domain simply as an object of exploitation, at best as a clan possession. Volodymyr the Great was the first ruler to give Rus’ political unity, by way of organized religion. The church provided him with the concepts of territorial and hierarchical organization; Byzantine notions of autocracy were adopted by him and his successors to give them the equivalent of imperial authority. The political traditions introduced by Volodymyr were based on the principles of territorial indivisibility and dynastic sovereignty. The seniority system of rule—ascension from elder brother to younger and from the youngest uncle to the eldest nephew—provided the Riurykide dynasty with a rotating system of advancement of its members, gave them political experience in lands they could someday expect to rule from Kyiv, and assured control, by way of traditional sanctions, of key points of the realm. This system served well until the reign of Volodymyr Monomakh, but did not survive Kyiv's decline.

The power of the grand prince was maintained by his military strength, particularly that of his druzhyna, or retinue. Ideologically, his power was upheld by the church, whose teachings gave him the attributes and responsibilities of a national leader, judge, and first Christian of the realm. The grand prince ruled and dispensed justice with the help of viceroys appointed by him, who were often the sons of the grand prince, of other princes, of governors, or of military commanders. These representatives of the grand prince's central power were aided by local administrators—the desiatski. The grand prince consulted on important state matters with the Boyar Council, which consisted of his senior retainers and the local aristocracy of power and wealth.

The viche (assembly), an important organ already within the tribal network, resolved all matters on behalf of the population. The city viche, composed of freemen, decided mainly on questions of war and peace and on the invitation, recognition, or expulsion of a prince. It became particularly important in the 12th century during the internecine wars of the princes for the throne of Kyiv.

In the Princely era, Ukrainian society had its own peculiarities. Its privileged elite (the boyars and the ‘better people’), which enjoyed full protection of the law, was not a closed estate; based, as it was, on merit, which the prince rewarded with grants of land, its membership was dependent on the will of the prince. Thus even priests' sons and commoners could become boyars. The towns folk consisted of burghers—mostly merchants and crafts people—and paupers. There was little difference in status between the wealthy merchants and the landed boyars. Most freemen were yeomen called smerds, who lived on their own land or on the land of the prince, paid taxes, and performed certain duties, such as building fortifications, bridges, and roads and serving in the levy en masse in times of war; gradually the smerds became dependent on their lords, and some became tenants or hired laborers on the land. A smaller category of peasants consisted of zakupy—impoverished smerds who had become indentured and half-free. The lowest social stratum in Rus’ consisted of slaves. Male slaves were called kholopy; usually prisoners of war or the offspring of slaves, they had no rights as persons and were considered the legal, movable property of their masters. Certain churchmen and princes, eg, Volodymyr Monomakh in Volodymyr Monomakh's Statute, tried to improve the lot and legal status of the slaves.

The economy of Kyivan Rus’.

Relatively little is known about the economy of Kyiv, although there is no doubt that agriculture was the main activity of the inhabitants. Farming techniques and implements were naturally primitive and the peasants lived mostly at a subsistence level. Some animal husbandry was practiced, as was extensive grain cultivation. Land, particularly after the 11th century, was privately owned. Most peasants supplemented their agricultural activities with fishing, trapping, and hunting, especially in the northern forest and forest-steppe regions. The forests also supplied wood, the major source of fuel. The peasants generally lived in small, scattered villages.

The second major component of Kyiv's economy was foreign trade. Not only were local goods, particularly furs, traded for important items, but much profit was made from the simple transshipment of goods along the great trade routes linking first east and west and later north and south. In the end, it was the breakdown of the trade route from ‘the Varangians to Byzantium’ that partially initiated Kyiv's decline, and it was the emergence of specialized routes linking the northern principalities to the Hanseatic League of states that furthered the disintegration of the state.

Defining the causes of Christianization, it should be noted that Vladimir decided in favor of Christianity from Byzantium because it was the mightiest state with highly developed culture. Byzantium was a Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire, and till the XII century it was more developed and more powerful than Western part of the Roman Empire. Byzantium did not suffer from invasions of Germanic tribes, and was able to keep all cultural achievements of Antiquity, whereas Western Roman Empire lost ancient heritage after several falls of Rome. Byzantine culture was a complicated unity of Antique and Christian traditions. Their correlations were manifested in different ways, but they took place in all spheres of cultural life. Byzantium expanded its political and economical influence through sharing religion and culture all over Europe. Byzantine priests, architects, and artists were invited to work in the Kievan Rus’, and in such a way they influenced on the development of architecture and monumental painting, iconography and book miniature. But it is necessary to emphasize that Kievan Rus’ culture never was a tracing of Byzantine one. Folk pre-Christian traditions influenced greatly on Orthodoxy. Thus, such synthesis provoked the development of Kievan Rus’ original culture.

As in other European countries of Medieval Europe, Christianization was a complicated process. Till the XII century it flourished in cities and amongst the nobility. Rural population of the Kievan Rus’ was influenced by old myths mostly. Christian authorities fought against double faith. Since 988 the population has largely accepted Christianity in public life, but in private life people still performed ancient rituals and worshipped old pagan cults. So, Christianity did not replace an old mythology, but was implemented in addition to it.

2. Christianization influenced greatly on the development of culture in the Golden Age of the Kievan Rus’. Spreading Christianity over Slavic peoples was intensified because of the missionary activity of Cyril and Methodius, Byzantine monks, who introduced Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets, and translated the Bible into Old Church Slavonic. Implementation of Cyrillic alphabet in the Kievan Rus’ intensified the development of education. Church authorities and princes patronized schools. In times of Vladimir the Great, a state school was for boyars’ children who were trained for state activity.

Yaroslav the Wise opened a school in Novgorod to teach further clergy. A special school for girls was opened at St. Andrew’s Monastery. To strengthen his power and provide order in social and legal relations in his realm, Yaroslav arranged for the compilation of a book of laws called ‘ Pravda Iaroslava’ (Yaroslav's Justice), the oldest part of the Ruskaia Pravda. During his rule Christianity spread and grew stronger in Rus’ (he actively suppressed paganism), and the organizational and hierarchical structure of the Rus’ church was established. In 1039 the existence of the Kyiv metropoly was confirmed in writing as being under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Yaroslav issued a statute defining the rights of the church and clergy. Apart from Constantinople's right to confirm the appointment of the metropolitan, the Rus’ church was autonomous, and in 1051 Yaroslav initiated the sobor of bishops that chose Ilarion as metropolitan of Kyiv. The first monasteries in Rus’ were formally established during Yaroslav's reign. He founded a primary school and library at the Saint Sophia Cathedral and sponsored the translation of Greek and other texts into Church Slavonic, the copying of many books, and the compilation of a chronicle (1037–9).

Yaroslav strengthened the international role of Kyivan Rus’ through dynastic unions. He married Ingigerd, the daughter of King Olaf Skö tkonung of Sweden, and arranged marriages for his daughters Yelysaveta Yaroslavna, Anna Yaroslavna, and Anastasiia with Kings Harald III of Norway, Henry I of France, and Andrew I of Hungary respectively. His son Iziaslav Yaroslavych married Gertrude, the daughter of Mieszko II of Poland; Vsevolod Yaroslavych, the Byzantine princess Maria, of the Monomachus line; Sviatoslav II Yaroslavych, the granddaughter of Emperor Henry II; and Volodymyr, Oda, the daughter of Count Leopold von Stade. The monarchs Olaf II Haraldsson and Harald III of Norway and Edmund II Ironsides of England sought asylum at Yaroslav's court, and he concluded alliances with Emperors Henry II, Conrad II, and Henry III. As a European power Kyivan Rus’ reached its zenith under his rule.

Increasing of educational level provoked development of literature. There were two kinds of literature, translated and original. Translated literature was translated from Greek and Latin. Basing on Byzantine examples, Kievan Rus’ intellectuals developed original literature – texts primarily written in Old Church Slavonic.

The development of original literature in Kyivan Rus' was based on both a rich folk oral tradition and a dissemination of translated religious texts. The oldest and most noted Kyivan didactic work is ‘A Sermon on Law and Grace' (1050) by Metropolitan Ilarion, the first native metropolitan of Kyiv. A more subtle form of didactic literature can be found in the numerous hagiographic works, describing the lives of saints. Modeled on translated hagiographies, lives of Saint Anthony of the Caves, Saint Volodymyr the Great, Saint Princess Olha, and others were written and collected in the Kyivan Cave Patericon, the most remarkable collection of lives in the Kyivan period. Also noteworthy are the early chronicles, which are unique for their wealth of information and their blending of fact and fiction, written sources and eyewitness accounts. Quite prevalent were apocryphal writings as well as translated tales. Also popular was the first � travelogue' by Hegumen Danylo. The most unusual and outstanding monument of old Ukrainian literature, however, is the secular epic poem Slovo o polku Ihorevi (The Tale of Ihor's Campaign, ca 1187).

Chronicles. The Ukrainian chronicles are the most remarkable monuments of historical literature produced in ancient Rus’. They were written as annual records or annals. Besides accounts of events they contain a variety of literary materials—stories, legends, biographies, and borrowings from Byzantine chronicles. Chronicle writing began in Kyiv in the 10th century. The first compilation was made in 1037, followed by the Kyivan Cave Compilation of 1073 and the Novgorod Compilation of 1079. The so-called Primary Chronicle or Kyivan Cave Compilation of 1097 was based on these collections and became in its turn the source for Povist’ vremennykh lit (Tale of Bygone Years, ca 1111), whose authorship is traditionally attributed to the monk Nestor the Chronicler.

Hagiography. Biographies, tales, and legends about saints, including accounts of miracles performed by them, particular episodes from their lives, and their martyrdom. These writings are among the most important monuments of old Ukrainian literature. By the 11th century there were already many translations of Greek and Latin hagiographic writings, individual lives of saints such as the Pannonian Lives of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius, the Czech lives of Saint Vá clav and Saint Ludmila, and the Moravian Life of Saint Vitus; patericons (collections of episodes from lives of monks) such as the Patericon of Sinai, of Jerusalem, and of Rome; reading menologies (collections of lives and sermons arranged according to the church calendar, not for liturgical use but for daily reading); and prologues or synaxaries (collections similar to menologies but with abridged lives). Original works written in Ukraine include the Lives of Saints Borys and Hlib (Chtenie) and the Life of Saint Theodosius of the Caves, both by Nestor the Chronicler (end of the 11th century), the beautifully composed The Tale and Passion and Glorification of the Holy Martyrs Borys and Hlib, and the Life of Prince Mstyslav I Volodymyrovych.

While talking about achievements of Kievan Rus’ culture, it should be mentioned that it was Yaroslav the Wise who organized the first library at the St. Sophia Cathedral and sponsored the coping of many books and translations from Greek. Also Yaroslav arranged for the compilation a book of laws called “Yaroslav’s Justice”, the oldest part of Rus’skaya Pravda.

Noting the development of Kievan Rus’ architecture, strong influence of Byzantium should be mentioned. Buildings were mainly made of wood. The first stone church in Kiev was the Church of the Tithes (989–996). It was built to commemorate the Baptism of the Kievan Rus’, but has not been saved. The St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev (1011–1054) is the most famous masterpiece of the Golden Age of Kievan Rus’ culture.

The Kyivan Cave Monastery is one of the most important spiritual and cultural centres in the history of the Ukrainian people. Founded by Saint Anthony of the Caves in the mid-11th century, the monastery soon became the largest religious and cultural center in Kyivan Rus'.

Kyivan Cave Monastery (Kyievo-Pecherska Lavra) was founded by Saint Anthony of the Caves in the mid-11th century near the village of Berestove in a cave that the future metropolitan of Kyiv, Ilarion, had excavated and lived in until 1051. The first monks excavated more caves and built a church above them. The monastery's first hegumen was Varlaam (to 1057). He was succeeded by Saint Theodosius of the Caves (ca 1062–74), who introduced the strict Studite rule.

The Kyivan princes and boyars generously supported the monastery, donating money, valuables, and land, and building fortifications and churches; some even became monks. Many of the monks were from the educated, upper strata, and the monastery soon became the largest religious and cultural center in Kyivan Rus’. Twenty of its monks became bishops in the 12th and 13th centuries. Saint Theodosius's ‘Teachings, ’ Nestor the Chronicler's ‘Story about Borys and Hlib, ’ ‘Life of Theodosius of the Caves, ’ Povist’ vremennykh lit (Tale of Bygone Years), and the Kyivan Cave Patericon were written there. Foreign works were translated, and books were transcribed and illuminated. Architecture and religious art (icons, mosaics, frescoes)—the works of Master Olimpii, Deacon Hryhorii, and others—developed there. Many folk tales and legends eventually arose about its saintly figures and the miraculous construction of its main church.

Dormition Cathedral of the Kyivan Cave Monastery. The main church of the Kyivan Cave Monastery. Built in 1073–8 at the initiative of Saint Theodosius of the Caves during the hegumenship of Stefan of Kyiv and funded by Prince Sviatoslav II Yaroslavych. The proportion of the building's length to its width (3: 2) became normative for the churches of the Princely era. At the end of the 11th century many additions to the cathedral were built, including Saint John's Baptistry in the form of a small church on the north side

There are no secular monuments survived in Kiev from that period aside from pieces of walls and ruins of gates.

Churches were decorated luxuriously with mural painting. Mosaic is a type of mural painting. It consists in wall and floor decoration by small pieces of cut stone, glass or ceramics which are set into plaster or cement. Fresco painting is a type of mural painting, which consists in painting on freshly plastered walls. Frescoes and mosaics were used in the decoration of the Church of Tithes, the St. Sophia Cathedral, the Dormition Cathedral of the Kievan Cave Monastery, and the Cathedral of St. Michael’s Golden-Domed Monastery.

In the Kyivan Rus' the fresco was the principal method of decorating church interiors. While Byzantine-style mosaics were limited to the central part of a church, frescoes covered all the side apses, vaults, columns and walls of the side naves, and sometimes even the arch supports, galleries, niches, and external portals. In Byzantium, mosaics were never mixed with frescoes in the same building; this is a unique practice of Ukrainian church art. Harmony between mosaic and fresco was achieved by using the same dominant colors. The most famous examples of this decorative system are Saint Sophia Cathedral (1037) and the Cathedral of Saint Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery (mid-12th century) in Kyiv. After the middle of the 12th century frescoes almost completely replaced mosaics in the decoration of church interiors. The most complete set of frescoes from this period has been preserved in the church of Saint Cyril's Monastery in Kyiv.

Fresco painting. A method of painting on freshly plastered walls with powdered pigments that are resistant to the erosive action of lime. Before the colors are applied to the wet plaster the main lines of the composition are usually traced on the preceding coat. The painting is very durable and is applied to both interior and exterior walls.

In the Kyivan Rus’ the fresco was the principal method of decorating church interiors. Mosaics adorned churches only in the 11th and 12th centuries and were limited to the central part, while frescoes covered all the side apses, vaults, columns and walls of the side naves, and sometimes even the arch supports, galleries, niches, and external portals. In Byzantium, mosaics were never mixed with frescoes in the same building; this is a unique practice of Ukrainian church art. Harmony between mosaic and fresco was achieved by using the same dominant colors. The most famous examples of this decorative system are Saint Sophia Cathedral (1037) and the Cathedral of Saint Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery (mid-12th century, destroyed by the Soviets in 1936, then rebuilt in independent Ukraine in the late 1990s) in Kyiv. A different Kyiv school of fresco painting was represented by the painters who decorated the Dormition Cathedral of the Kyivan Cave Monastery (11th century, destroyed by the Soviets in 1941; rebuilt in the late 1990s).

The frescoes of Saint Sophia Cathedral are painted on a two-layer plaster base 1.5–2 cm thick and strengthened with chopped straw. The cool blue, white, purple, and green colors predominate in both the frescoes and mosaics, creating a reverential mood. In the main apse, near the mosaic of The Mother of God (Orante), frescoes depict various scenes from the life of the Mother of God and her parents (eg. Annunciation); the main events in the life of Christ appear in the central nave (eg., The Descent into Hell). Another series of frescoes, dealing with the Christological cycle, adorns the second level. Of particular interest are the secular frescoes: episodes from court life, hippodrome events, hunting scenes, musicians, acrobats, and minstrels (skomorokhy) are depicted in the two towers; there are figural portraits of Prince Yaroslav the Wise and his children in the main nave (see fresco of Prince Yaroslav's Family). The prevalent ornament, consisting of braided coils of straw worked into a geometric pattern, reappears in other Kyiv, Chernihiv, and Novgorod frescoes of the 11th–12th century. The surviving frescoes of the Cathedral of Saint Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery (such as the Annunciation) suggest that the interior was decorated with brighter colors and that the characters were portrayed according to different artistic conventions than in the Saint Sophia Cathedral; for example, the apostles in the mosaic of the sanctuary lack aureolas. The apostles of the 11th–12th century found in frescoes of Saint Michael's Church (aka Yurii's Temple) in Oster near Pereiaslav are similarly portrayed, but in a warmer color scheme dominated by red and ocher. The appearance of local features in character depiction, however, relates these figures more closely to those found in the frescoes of Saint Nicholas's Rotunda Chapel in Horiany in Transcarpathia. Fragments of frescoes from the following Chernihiv cathedrals have also been preserved: the Cathedral of the Transfiguration (early 11th-century depiction of Saint Teklia), the Saints Borys and Hlib Cathedral, the Dormition Cathedral of Yeletskyi Dormition Monastery (Orante, etc), the Church of Good Friday. Traces of frescoes were found in Pereiaslav during the excavations of Saint Michael's Cathedral (built 1089), in the Church of the Savior in Posada, and in other churches.

After the middle of the 12th century frescoes almost completely replaced mosaics in the decoration of church interiors. The most complete set of frescoes from this period has been preserved in the church of Saint Cyril's Monastery in Kyiv and in the Transfiguration Church in Berestove in which a 12th-century fresco ‘Miraculous Fishing’ was uncovered in the 1970s. The influence of Balkan art is evident. Frescoes depicting the sacraments of the Eucharist and the holy orders are found under the traditional Orante in the altar apse and, as in Bulgaria, are imitations of hanging icons. On the walls and vault of the narthex appear the first paintings of the Last Judgment and scenes of the Apocalypse known in Ukraine. In contrast to the idealized figures of Saint Sophia Cathedral's frescoes, the figures of Saint Cyril's Monastery display features of the local population. The colors are bright and warm, dominated by ocher and red (eg., Presentation at the Temple).

Mosaic. A method of wall and floor decoration in which small pieces of cut stone, glass (tesserae), and, occasionally, ceramic or other imperishable materials are set into plaster, cement, or waterproof mastic. Mosaic was used to decorate various Rus’ churches and palaces in the 10th to 12th centuries, including the Church of the Tithes (989–96), the Saint Sophia Cathedral (1037 to the late 1040s), the Dormition Cathedral of the Kyivan Cave Monastery (1078), and Saint Michael's Church (1108–13) of the Saint Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery. Only fragments of the mosaic floors in the Church of the Tithes have been preserved, and no mosaics from the Dormition Cathedral are extant. Saint Michael's Church was destroyed in 1934–6, but fragments of its mosaics have been preserved in the Tretiakov Gallery in Moscow or installed in the choir balcony of the Saint Sophia Cathedral, which also contains the only in situ extant mosaics from the Kyivan Rus’ period (260 sq m of 640 sq m of wall space originally decorated). The Saint Sophia mosaics are made of tesserae of 18 hues in 143 tonal variations and of 25 colors of gold and silver. Because the mosaics show two manners, one strongly reminiscent of the Constantinople school and the other of a local Kyivan style, it is likely that the work was carried out by a team of Greek craftsmen with the aid of local masters.

The mosaics of Saint Michael's Church of the Saint Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery show the development of a Kyivan style that is more dynamic and compositionally less schematic than that of the Saint Sophia mosaics. In the rendering of the Eucharist in the Saint Sophia Cathedral the Apostles are uniformly posed and robed in subdued tones. In the Saint Michael's version of this subject the Apostles are depicted in a variety of more naturalistic poses and garbed in bright colors. The mosaics of Saint Michael's tend to be linear in style, whereas the Saint Sophia mosaics are modeled with subtle variations in tone and hue.

With the introduction of Christianity in the 10th century, Byzantine icons and icon painters began to be imported into Ukraine. In the following century an indigenous school of icon painting developed in Kyiv. By the turn of the century the Kyivan Cave Monastery Icon Painting Studio could boast of such renowned painters as Master Olimpii and Deacon Hryhorii, who are mentioned in the Kyivan Cave Patericon. Because of their destructibility by fire and desirability as war booty, many icons perished. No Kyivan icons from the 11th century, and only a few from the 12th, have survived to our day.

Icon. An image depicting a holy personage or scene in the stylized Byzantine manner, and venerated in the Eastern Christian churches. The image can be executed in different media; hence, the term ‘icon’ can be applied to mural paintings, frescoes, or mosaics, tapestries or embroideries, enamels, and low reliefs carved in marble, ivory, or stone or cast in metal. The typical icon, however, is a portable painting on a wooden panel, and it is this form of icon that is discussed here.

Technique. The earliest technique of icon painting was encaustic, but the traditional and most common technique is tempera. The paint—an emulsion of mineral pigments (ochers, siennas, umbers, or green earth), egg yolk, and water—is applied with a brush to a panel prepared in a special way. The panel of well-dried linden, birch, poplar, alder, pine, or cypress is 3–4 cm thick. To prevent warping it is reinforced with two hardwood slats inserted in grooves on the reverse side. The face side is slightly hollowed to obtain a concave surface surrounded by a protective border, usually 3 cm wide and scored to provide a better gluing base. It is then covered with canvas, to which several layers of gesso (plaster or powdered alabaster mixed with fish glue) are applied. When an even, smooth surface has been produced, an outline of the painting is traced on it with charcoal or scratched into it with a needle. Gold leaf is fixed to designated areas before painting begins. The paint is applied in successive layers from dark to light tones; then the figures are outlined and, finally, certain areas are highlighted with whiting. After drying, the painting is covered with a special varnish consisting of linseed oil and crystalline resins to protect it from dust and humidity. The varnish imparts depth and richness to the pale tones of tempera but, eventually, becomes dark with dirt. Traditionally cleaned with a vinegar and ammonia solution, the varnish is now treated with chemical solutions that are capable of restoring the original brilliance and depth to the colors.

History. With the introduction of Christianity in the 10th century, Byzantine icons and icon painters began to be imported into Ukraine. According to the Primary Chronicle, Volodymyr the Great ordered icons for the Church of the Tithes from Chersonese Taurica. In the following century an indigenous school of icon painting developed in Kyiv. By the turn of the century the Kyivan Cave Monastery Icon Painting Studio could boast of such renowned painters as Master Olimpii and Deacon Hryhorii, who are mentioned in the Kyivan Cave Patericon. In the 12th century the studio's influence was felt throughout Kyivan Rus’—in Galicia, Volhynia, Novgorod the Great, Suzdal, and Yaroslavl. Its distinctive style of painting resembled closely the style of contemporary mosaics in Kyiv. Because of their destructibility by fire and desirability as war booty, many icons perished. No Kyivan icons from the 11th century, and only a few from the 12th, have survived to our day. The oldest surviving masterpieces of the Kyiv school include the Mother of God Great Panagia, a large icon done probably by Master Olimpii and donated by Volodymyr Monomakh to a church in Rostov; Saint Demetrius of Thessalonica, a 12th-century icon that belonged to the Dormition Church in Dmitrov; Saint Nicholas with Saints on the Borders (turn of the 12th century); The Mother of God of the Caves or The Svensk Mother of God, a late 13th-century copy of an earlier Kyivan icon done for Prince Roman Mstyslavych; and Ihor's Mother of God, a 13th-century work that disappeared from the Kyivan Cave Monastery during the Second World War. There are also a number of icons that belong to the Kyiv tradition of icon painting, but may have been produced in centers other than Kyiv. The most important of these are works that were probably produced by the Novgorod the Great school according to Kyivan models: The Ustiug Annunciation (12th century), The Archangel Gabriel or The Angel with Golden Hair (12th), and Saints Borys and Hlib (12th–13th). The famous Vyshhorod Mother of God, later known as The Vladimir Mother of God, is not a Kyivan but a Greek icon that was brought in 1134 from Constantinople to Vyshhorod, and taken to Vladimir by Andrei Bogoliubskii in 1155.

Kyivan Cave Monastery Icon Painting Studio. Main centre of Ukrainian icon painting for many centuries. Its founding at the end of the 11th century was connected with the painting (1083–9) of the Dormition Cathedral of the Kyivan Cave Monastery by Greek masters and the Kyivan artists Master Olimpii and Deacon Hryhorii. The studio developed a distinctive style that is evident in its frescoes, icons, and book illuminations.

3. Political disintegration of the Kievan Rus’ started after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Rise of provinces political power accompanied by cultural development of their centers. Novgorod Republic, the Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal in the North, the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia to the southwest and still Kiev were main cultural centers.

The most famous examples of original Kievan hagiographies were created in this period. They were “Story about Boris and Gleb” and “The Life of St. Theodosius of the Caves”, both by Nestor the Chronicler (late XI century), and “ The Kievan Cave Patericon ” (1215–1225). It was Nestor the Chronicler who edited “The Primary Chronicle” and supplemented it with descriptions of events of the late XI and the early XII centuries. He also created “ The Tale of Bygone Years ” (ca1111).

The Primary Chronicle begins with the biblical description of the Flood and the division of the earth among Noah's sons. Then it deals with the migrations of the Slavs, Saint Andrew the apostle, and the question of who first ruled Rus’ (the story of Kyi, Shchek, and Khoryv, the calling of the Varangians, etc). The subsequent chronological account of events is interspersed with such legendary stories as that of Kozhemiaka (993) and the siege of Bilhorod by the Pechenegs (997). Nestor not only supplemented this chronicle, which ends with 1093, but extended it to 1110. He added information about the strife among the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, Cuman attacks on Kyiv, assemblies of the princes, and the blinding of Vasylko Rostyslavych. The second edition of the Povist’ (1116) was completed by Hegumen Sylvestr of the Vydubychi Monastery who among other materials added Volodymyr Monomakh's speech to the Dolobske council of princes in 1103. It is probable that Monomakh's Poucheniie ditiam (Instruction for My Children) was added to the Povist’ at the Vydubychi Monastery. The third edition of the Povist’ was completed at the Kyivan Cave Monastery in about 1118.

Povist’ vremennykh lit (The Tale of Bygone Years). A chronicle of events in Kyivan Rus’ in the 12th century, under the editorship of Nestor the Chronicler. A valuable historical source and an excellent example of medieval Rus’ literature, it begins with an account of the Flood and Noah's division of the world among his sons; then it proceeds to a description of the dispersal of the Slavic tribes in Eastern and Central Europe and a recounting of the apocryphal sermon of Saint Andrew on the banks of the Dnieper River. The history of Kyiv and the Polianians is central to the narrative. After an account of the founding of Kyiv by Kyi, Shchek, Khoryv, and their sister, Lybed, the chronicle deals with the question of who first ruled Rus’; it ascribes the origin of Rus’ to the summoning of the Varangians and the establishment of the Riurykide dynasty. Subsequent events in Rus’ history are described in annal form to the year 1110.

The Povist’ is based on earlier Kyivan and Novgorodian chronicles, mainly the Primary Chronicle written (possibly by the monk Nykon) at the Kyivan Cave Monastery, in which events are described to 1093. It draws on contemporary Byzantine chronicles, such as that of Georgios Hamartolos, and includes the texts of Rus’-Byzantine treaties of 907, 912, and 972. Folk legends, such as the accounts of Princess Olha's revenge on the Derevlianians, Kozhemiaka's defeat of a Pecheneg champion, and the 997 Pecheneg siege, are recounted.

Three redactions of the Povist’ were compiled. The first, now-inextant redaction was completed in 1113 by Nestor the Chronicler, who edited the Primary Chronicle and supplemented it with descriptions of events of the late 11th and early 12th centuries. The detailed account of the Kyivan Cave Monastery in the years 1094–1110 supports the view that Nestor was the chronicle's compiler. The redaction provides eyewitness accounts of internecine conflicts among the sons of Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the blinding of Prince Vasylko Rostyslavych of Terebovlia in 1097, and the Liubech congress of princes, Vytychiv congress of princes, and Dolobske council of princes.

The second redaction was completed in 1116, at the behest of Grand Prince Volodymyr Monomakh, at the Vydubychi Monastery by Hegumen Sylvestr. Sylvestr added, among other things, Monomakh's speech at the Dolobske council of princes in 1103. The redaction was preserved in the later Laurentian Chronicle and Radziwił ł Chronicle. The third redaction was composed in 1118 at the Kyivan Cave Monastery by an unknown author. The text focuses on the events pertinent to the Monomakhovych line (Volodymyr Monomakh, his father, Vsevolod Yaroslavych, and his son, Mstyslav I Volodymyrovych). The redaction was preserved in the Hypatian Chronicle of ca 1425.

The central idea of the Povist’ is the unity of the Rus’ land and state, as symbolized by the Riurykide dynasty in Kyiv. The Povist’ served as the basis of most later Rus’ chronicles (eg, the Kyiv Chronicle and the Galician-Volhynian Chronicle). Until the 16th century all of them began with the text of the Povist’. The language of the Povist’ is a combination of Old Church Slavonic and the contemporary Rus’ vernacular.

The Kyivan Cave Patericon, consisting of the correspondence between monk Simon and monk Polikarp (1215–25) and several tales by Polikarp (1223–33), is an important monument of hagiographic literature. It is a collection of tales about the monks of the Kyivan Cave Monastery. The original version arose after 1215 but not later than 1230 out of the correspondence of two monks of the monastery—monk Simon (by then the bishop of Suzdal and Vladimir) and monk Polikarp, who used the epistolary form as a literary device. The letters contain 20 tales about righteous or sinful monks of the monastery based on oral legends and several written sources, such as the Life of Saint Anthony of the Caves and the Kyivan Cave and Rostov chronicles, which have not survived. The later redactions, it seems, did not change the original text significantly, but supplemented it with the Life of Saint Theodosius of the Caves and the eulogy of him, the tale about Saint Isaac (from a chronicle), and stories from the monastery's history. The Kyiv redaction contains information about the later influence of Byzantine Hesychasm. Several later editions were considerably corrupted by editorial changes.

Besides chronological data about the monastery, the text contains a wealth of historical and cultural information about monastic and secular life: such subjects as Master Olimpii's icon painting, Armenian and Syrian physicians in Kyiv, the cultural role of the Varangians, the fate of Kyiv residents captured by King Bolesł aw I the Brave in his war with Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the court system, private libraries, and the books read by monks. Because of its relatively simple style, particularly in monk Simon, and its rich vocabulary, as well as its masterly characterization of individuals by means of dialogue, prayer, and ‘internal monologue, ’ the patericon is one of the outstanding works of Old Ukrainian literature. It marked an important advance in the literary art of the period.

The Tale of Igor’s Campaign ” (late XII century) is an example of epic literature. Its central theme is the fate of separated Kievan lands. In 1116, at the behest of Grand Prince Vladimir Monomakh, the new redaction of “The Primary Chronicle” was completed with supplements of the Monomakh’s speech at the Vydubychi Monastery by Hegumen Sylvestr. Galician-Volhynian Chronicle (XIII century) was focused on the historical events of this Principality

Historical basis and content. The subject of the poem is the unsuccessful campaign mounted in the spring of 1185 by Ihor Sviatoslavych, prince of Novhorod-Siverskyi, against the Cumans. Its central theme is the fate of the territories of Kyivan Rus’. In addressing that theme the author condemns the various princes for their feuding and their selfishness at the expense of the general good.

The poem was written in an epic lyrical style. The historical subject matter is interspersed with dreams, laments, nature's reaction to the hero's fate, monologues of princes, and other motifs and devices.

The poem begins with an invocation of Boian, who sang the praises of princes of the 11th century. The author of the Slovo promises to emulate Boian's style and to join the glories of the past with those of the present. After a description of preparations for the campaign, of the three-day battle, and of Ihor Sviatoslavych's defeat the author proceeds to analyze the reasons for the decline of the Rus’ land. After a description of Ihor's escape from captivity the work concludes with praise of the ‘ancient princes’ Ihor and Vsevolod Sviatoslavych and of the ‘younger ones, ’ represented by Volodymyr Ihorovych. The language of the work is the contemporary Rus’ literary language, similar to that of the chronicles, but with a marked increase in the incidence of the vernacular. Most scholars believe that the author was from either Kyiv or Chernihiv.

Since mid XII century frescoes almost completely replaced mosaics in the decoration of church interiors. The most complete set of frescoes has been preserved in the Church of St. Cyril’s Monastery in Kiev (ca. 1140–1147) and in the Transfiguration Church in Berestove (late XI century). Describing arts of the period, special attention has to be focused on iconography. Icon is a symbolic image of a holy personage or a scene in a stylized manner, where colors, lines, objects are subordinated to canon, i.e. to a special set of standards and rules. The term can be applied to mural painting as well as to portable painting on a wooden panel. Kievan Cave Monastery Icon Painting Studio (since 1083) was the main centre of Ukrainian icon painting for centuries. It developed a distinctive style that is evident in its frescoes, icons, and book illuminations. Kievan tradition of icon painting was developed in Novgorod the Great where icons were produced according to Kievan models: The Ustiug Annunciation (XII century), The Archangel Gabriel or The Angel with Golden Hair (XII century). The famous Vyshhorod Mother of God, later known as the Vladimir Mother of God, is not a Kievan but a Greek icon that was brought to Vyshgorod from Constantinople in 1134, and taken to Vladimir by Andrey Bogolyubsky in 1155.

Architectural development of Novgorod moved off Byzantine models and expressed a new style in church building: cathedrals of St. Sophia (1044–1052), St. Nicholas’ (1113). Churches in Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal were built of white stone with the help of Romanesque masters. Such type of Rus architecture was called “white-stone architecture”, the Church of the Intersection on the Nerl (1165) is one of its best examples. Intersections with Romanesque style are the most evident in architecture of the Principality of Halicia-Volhynia (e.g. the Church of St. Panteleymon near Galich, the end of the XII century). Secular architecture of this period is represented by Golden Gate of Vladimir (ca 1158–1165).

Mongol invasion of Rus’ (1237–1240) signified the end of Kievan Rus’ culture.


Practical Class 4


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