Aircraft loading

A lot of data is used to produce a load and trim sheet which is given to the pilots prior to departure. The sheet may be produced manually or can be printed from a computer program into which are entered the Dry Operating Weight of the aircraft, the takeoff fuel, the trip fuel, the number of male, female, child and infant passengers (usually calculated at standard weights) and the weight of their bags and any freight carried. There is also an area set aside for Last Minute Changes. From this information the ZFW, TOW and LW are calculated.

Loaders are rostered to work on a flight in a predetermined group or “crew”. The number of loaders assigned to each crew is usually calculated according to the size of the aircraft and the amount of work required. In very general terms, three men will handle 100 kg per minute when bulk loading, that is, loading loose freight, mails and baggage. On larger aircraft cargo is often pre-loaded onto pallets or igloos which can then be placed into the aircraft holds by specially designed machines.

The loaders are supplied with a “load plan”. This is prepared by the Load Control and Planning Office. It specifies the amount of baggage, freight and mail expected and the aircraft holds into which they must be placed. Any deviation from the plan is advised to the Load Planners who will incorporate the changes into the Load sheet. Loaders are required to count the number of pieces loaded as a cross check against the manifest of freight, mails and baggage checked in.

Answer the questions:

1. What data are entered into the load and trim sheet?

2. How is usually the weight of the passengers calculated?

3. Why is it necessary to have en empty area set aside?

4. Which parameters are calculated using these data?

5. How are loaders rostered to work on a flight?

6. What is the number of loaders based on?

7. What is the standard rate of output of the airport loaders?

8. Why is it necessary to pre-load the cargo in some cases?

9. Which devices are used for this purpose?

10. Which document are the loaders supplied with?

11. What does this document specify?

12. Who are the deviations advised to?

13. What do these people do with the changes?

14. What are the loaders required to do?

TEXT 20

Pre-Departure Inspection

The pilot conducting the check normally starts his Walk Round Inspection at the forward entry door and proceeds round the aircraft in a clockwise direction, carefully examining the fuselage, wings, engines and tail-plane. Any potential problems which can be observed by the trained eye, can be identified, assessed and dealt with before they become a safety hazard during flight. Items such as

· damaged pitot-static sensors

· damaged angle of attack sensors

· damaged or missing static discharge wicks

· fuel leaks

· engine oil leaks

· hydraulic fluid leakage

· broken brackets

· holes, scratches or dents in the fuselage or wings caused by ground equipment or bird strikes

· damaged flap, aileron, elevator and rudder surfaces and hinges

· broken landing lights; navigation lights

· loose or missing bolts

· poor door sealing

· nicked or chipped engine fan blades

· incorrectly inflated, damaged or worn tyres

· wheel damage

· incorrect oleo extension

are carefully noted and drawn to the attention of maintenance personnel as necessary.

During winter operations the walk round is also used to check the fuselage and all flying control surfaces and hinges for ice, frost or snow accumulation and to ensure that it is all removed before flight.

Answer the questions:

1. What kind of inspection is carried out before every flight?

2. Who performs it?

3. How does the check usually begin?

4. Where does the pilot proceed then?

5. What does he carefully examine?

6. What kind of potential problems do you remember? Name as many as you can.

7. What are the additional problems typical for winter operation?

8. When should such problems be removed?

TEXT 21

Disembarkation

After the aircraft has been on stand by the pilot, perhaps under the guidance of a marshaller, it is by ground staff who guide the passengers into the arrivals terminal. Passengers should remain in their seats with their seat belts fastened until the aircraft has come to a complete stop, and the Flight Grew has turned off the Seat Belt sign. The aircraft may be parked on a stand at the main terminal or on a remote stand distance away where passenger will be bussed to the terminal. They should gather their hand baggage, and, leave the aircraft by the exit indicated by the cabin crew. Passengers may, on occasion, disembark using the airstairs at the front of the aircraft or the mobile steps which are driven up to the back of the aircraft. At most airports air-bridges or jetways move up against the aircraft’s side so that the passengers may disembark directly into the terminal.

The aircraft is also met by a fleet of vehicles to service it during its turnaround. The baggage is removed from the aircraft’s hold onto baggage carts by the team of Loaders and then transported to the baggage hall. Any freight on board will be taken to the Cargo terminal to be sorted and redirected onward on another flight or, after Customs clearance, forwarded to its owners as appropriate. The fuel bowser will be used to refuel the aircraft if needed, and other service vehicles will fill up the water ranks, and empty the aircraft’s lavatories. The aircraft’s will be restocked from the Catering truck, and aircraft cleaned before it is ready to operate its next flight. An engineer examines the aircraft, checking all the systems, and the Tech Log, rectifying any technical problems that may have occurred during its last flight.

Answer the questions:

1. When and who guide the passengers into the arrival terminal?

1. Where may the aircraft be parked?
2. How should the passengers leave the aircraft?
3. Who removes the baggage? Where is it transported?
4. Where is any freight on board taken?
5. What is it done with an aircraft before it is ready to operate the next flight?
6. Who examines the aircraft?

TEXT 22

Immigration

Once arriving in the main terminal passengers and crew will first be directed to the Immigration hall. There may be special facilities at some but not all airports for crew members to allow them to complete the necessary arrival formalities more quickly.

At Immigration persons arriving from outside the State must present their passports and visas, if required, to the immigration officers or police for inspection. The officer will check to see that each person’s travel documents are in order. A person may not be allowed into a country if his documents have expired or are not valid for that country. The immigration officer may stamp a permit in the passport detailing the port of entry, date, and how long one may stay in the country.

Baggage Collection

After passing through Immigration, the passengers are directed to the baggage hall. On reaching the baggage collection area baggage trolleys are available either free of for a small charge. The baggage carts will have brought the passengers’ bags from the aircraft into the baggage hall, where the bags are then put onto the carousels for collection. TV Monitors display details of the carousel at which to reclaim one’s baggage. As the carousel goes around, each piece of baggage is brought out on it and passengers collect their bags. When all baggage has been collected, passengers must then clear Customs before going into the public area, and are free to go their way.

Answer the questions:

1. Where are passengers and crew directed after arriving in the main terminal?
2. What must persons arriving from outside state present at immigration for inspection?
3. When may not a person be allowed into a country?
4. What does a permit in the passport detail?

5. Where are the passengers through immigration?

6. What is available for passengers in the baggage collection area?

7. Where are the bags put after they have been brought from the aircraft?

8. Where are details of the carousel displayed?

9. Where must passengers go after all baggage has been collected?

TEXT 23

Customs

As passengers leave the baggage hall, they pass through the Customs hall, where Customs Officers may inspect a passenger’s bags. At Customs there are generally two channels, one Red and one Green. At airports within the European Union there are special Blue Channels for EU citizens. If passengers have nothing to “Declare”, that is if they are not carrying goods which would qualify for the payment of duty or taxes they should go through the green channel. If passengers are carrying goods which qualify for additional taxation, or they are unsure, they should go through the red channel where they will meet with a customs official who will advise them.

Passengers who go through the green channel are making a declaration that they are not carrying goods which qualify for additional taxation, and if they are subsequently asked to open their bags and contraband goods or goods which qualify for additional taxation are discovered, they can be charged with making false declarations and may be fined heavily and have their goods confiscated.

Customs Officers may ask passengers about their journey, where they are coming from and search to see if they have any dutiable, prohibited or controlled substances, such as narcotics. It is a serious offence to attempt to smuggle forbidden articles into the country.

Answer the questions:

1. What do the passengers pass as they leave the baggage hall?

2. How many channels are there at Customs?

3. Where do the passengers go if they have nothing to declare?

4. Where do the passengers go if they are carrying goods which qualify for additional taxation?

5. Why and when can the passengers be charged with making false declarations?

6. What can Customs Officers ask the passengers?

TEXT 24

Arrivals Hall

At last the traveller has completed all necessary formalities of entry to a country and is free to move on the arrivals Hall where he may be met by family or friends. The arrivals hall or concourse may contain many facilities. There is often a Bureau-de Change or Bank where foreign currencies may be exchanged. Restaurants, cafes, bars and shops are also found in the arrivals hall. One may also expect to find number of car rental desk, airline desk, and a tourist information desk. Finally, outside the building there are the car parking areas, taxi ranks, buses into the city and other travel facilities.

Flight Crew Duties

After shutting down the aircraft, the pilots complete a “shutdown” checklist. The Tech log is written up with particulars of sector times and any defects which may have arisen during the flight. They may discuss these with the engineer if they are important or difficult to write up clearly and succinctly.

The flight crew then disembark to clear customs if necessary, usually by a different route that that used by the passengers.

When they return to the Operations Control office, the crew complete their duties for the flight. This process may include any or all of the following:

· returning the completed flight plan to the operations Officer for examination and filing,

· recording fuel consumed figures into the computer for statistical analysis,

· reporting any observations they have on the weather they experienced on route.

Answer the questions:

1. Where can a traveller go after he has completed all necessary formalities of entry to a country?

2. What can you find at the arrival hall?

3. What is there outside the building?

4. What does a pilot complete after shutting down the aircraft?

5. What is written up in the Tech Log?

6. Where do the flight crew go after they disembark the aircraft?

7. What do the flight crew have to do on order to complete their duties for the flight?

TEXT 25

Safety

(Part 1)

Safety can be defined as “being safe”. Safe may in turn be defined as free from danger or not involved in risk. Safety is an objective of utmost importance in air travel, allowing passengers to be safe by eliminating or minimizing risk.

All activities in life involve risk. The dangers of driving a motor car or, indeed, walking along a street are well known, and flying an aircraft has, of course, its own inherent dangers. One may seek danger in sport, for example, for excitement. But before engaging in any activity, the wise person considers the degree of risk involved and decides whether the safety level of the activity is acceptable. If the safety level is too low, the person avoids that activity.

If a prospective passenger feels that flying is not safe, he will either not travel or will find another means of reaching his destination. He must be reassured that flying is safe and the only way to do that is to ensure that all aspects of aviation are indeed as safe as human ability can make them.

The aviation industry is co-operation of the aircraft manufacturers, airlines, training schools, Air Traffic Control and the Aviation Authority, Since the industry must provide its passengers with the highest level of safety, each aspect of an operation is assessed in detail and an appropriate safety level determined.

Answer the questions:

1. What can safety be defined?

2. What is safety? / what does “safety” mean?

3. How do all activities in life involve risk?

4. What does the wise person consider before engaging in any activity?

5. What will a prospective passenger do if he feels that flying is not safe?

6. Why must he be reassured?

TEXT 26

Safety

(Part 2)

Safety starts long before the passenger ever sets foot on board the airliner. When the aircraft is being designed and built, standards for safety are determined and set. Each component and system is engineered and rigorously tested to ensure that those standards are met. When assembled, the aircraft is thoroughly tested to ensure that it performs as required throughout the flight envelope, and can be flown by an average pilot in all foreseen normal and abnormal circumstances.

Aircrew (pilots, engineers and cabin staff) are licensed and thoroughly trained in normal and emergency procedures. Their performance is regularly tested to standards set by the regulatory Authorities. Maintenance engineers and technicians are highly trained and licensed or certificated. Detailed maintenance schedules and procedures are designed and careful records kept to ensure safety.

Air Traffic Control, which is charged with responsibility for ensuring a safe environment it which civil aviation may be operated, is similarly staffed by dedicated, professional licensed personnel. They ensure the orderly flow of air traffic to the highest standard of safety. This is achieved by using sophisticated computerized radar and communications together with highly developed procedures.

The result of all this effort, dedication and expense is that travel by air has become one of the safest activities in which a person may engage. Flying can be shown statistically to be the safest form of travel ever devised. Nevertheless, failures, whether mechanical, systematic or human still occur. Tragic accidents happen. The ideal for which the industry must strive is one in which no accidents of fatalities occur.

Answer the questions:

1. When are standards for safety determined?

2. Why is each component and system engineered and rigorously tested?

3. Why is the aircraft thoroughly tested?

4. How are aircrew licensed and trained?

5. What is air traffic control charged with?

6. What do licensed personnel ensure?

7. How is this achieved?

8. What is the result of all this effect, dedication and expense?

TEXT 27

Dangerous Goods

When a package is categorized as Dangerous Goods, strict rules regarding the quantities allowed, package strength, handling labels and documentation HAVE TO BE FOLLOWED. As yet no accident has occurred when all the laid down procedures have been correctly carried out. The procedures were developed by ICAO and are published in the Technical Instructions for the Safe transportation of Dangerous Goods by Air. This is essentially a legal document and in practice most airlines use the Dangerous Goods Regulations (DGRs) published by IATA. These contain the same information, but are easier to use. Individual countries and airlines may have more restrictive rules and these are also referred to in the DGR’s.

Dangerous Goods fall into 3 groups:

1. Acceptable on passenger or cargo aircraft.

2. Cargo aircraft only (CAO).

3. Forbidden for air carriage.

These groups are divided into different classes according to the hazard they pose.

Each class has a distinctive label with either a symbol or text, which tells you what the package contains, and the class number.

· Class 1 – Explosives

· Class 2 – Gases

· Class 3 – Flammable Liquids

· Class 4 – Flammable Solids

· Class 5 – Oxidizers

· Class 6 – Toxic material

· Class 7 – Radioactive

· Class 8 – Corrosives

· Class 9 – Miscellaneous or environmentally hazardous material

The classes are divided again into divisions of materials with similar characteristics. In these sub-divisions the materials are assigned a “Proper shipping name” and UN number or ID number and packing instruction and group.

Answer the questions:

1. What body developed the procedures of transportation dangerous goods?
2. Where are the procedures published?
3. What does this document contain?
4. How many groups do dangerous goods fall into? Name them.
5. What classes are dangerous goods divided into?
6. What does a distinctive label tell us?
7. What divisions are the classes subdivided into?

TEXT 28

Aviation Security

(Part 1)

The aim of aviation security is to safeguard civil aviation operations against acts of unlawful interference. The safety of persons (passengers, crew, ground personnel and the general public) is the primary objective.

Airport operators have the responsibility of implementing security measures for the operation of the aerodrome and ensure that access control systems and emergency procedures are in place. Air Carries implement security measures applicable security programmes which contain detailed procedures for screening passengers, baggage, cargo, and mail. The procedures also cover the security of aircraft and facilities. they are required to have response to threats against their operations

Implementation of this security has evolved over a period of many years, particularly from 1968 to the present time. At first, security focused on the most common crime, hijacking. The record year for this type of crime was 1969, when there were 82 occurrences. Security was strengthened world-wide and virtually every country introduced pertinent procedures and eventually refused to accept hijackers and grant them refuse. Thus with no country to flee to or be accepted in, this type of crime diminished. However, hijacking remains a very problem. The tragic deaths of 123 passengers and crew when in November 1996 a B757, hijacked from Addis Ababa, ran out of fuel and crashed into the sea off the COMORO Islands remind us of this.

The “bomb on board aircraft” was now part of the security nightmare and procedures to prevent the terrorist gaining access to the aircraft or to baggage and cargo were developed.

Answer the questions:

1. What is the aim of aviation security?

2. What is the primary objective?

3. What do airport operators have the responsibility of?

4. What do air carriers implement?

5. What do security programmes contain?

6. What do the procedures require?

7. How long has implementation of these security evolved?

8. Why does hijacking remain a very problem?

9. What was the security nightmare?

TEXT 29

Aviation Security

(Part 2)

There are several organization and legal conventions which assist civil aviation to combat terrorism and extortion, some of which are briefly discussed here.

The International Civil Aviation Organization is a specialist agency of the United Nations formed to promote the safe and orderly development of civil aviation.

Standards and Recommended Practices on security were adopted by the Council in March 1974, and were designated Annex 17 to the Chicago Convention.

The International Conventions concerning security are:

· Tokyo Convention, 1963. This concerns offences and certain other acts committed on board aircraft.

· Hague Convention, 1970. Concerns the suppression of unlawful seizure of aircraft.

· Montreal Convention, 1971. Concerns the suppression of unlawful acts against the safety of civil aviation.

· Montreal Protocol, 1988, to the Montreal Convention, 1971. “It is an offence for anyone to endanger safety at aerodromes serving international civil aviation by carrying out acts of violence against persons or facilities at such aerodromes”.

· Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives.

Answer the questions:

1. What do several organizations and legal convection assist?

2. What is the International Civil Aviation Organization?

3. What is the aim of ICAO?

4. What were Standards and Recommended Practices adopted by?

5. What are the International Conventions concerning aviation security?

6. What does each convention concern?

TEXT 30

Aviation Security

(Part 3)

Everyone in the airline industry must play a part in ensuring that security is effective and taken very seriously. Aviation security is dynamic. As the tactics of the criminal vary, so must our response. It is not simply a matter for the Pilot in Command and Airport Police. All of this, whether professional or passengers, must co-operate and play our part.

This is why, at the security check, security officers examine the traveller’s boarding cards and both they and their various items of carry-on baggage are subjected to physical and electronic search for explosives and other weapons. The security check will also look other forbidden or dangerous items such as pressurized canistres, flammable liquids or gases, and matches. Any such items found will be confiscated.

Many travellers regard security as a nuisance and an unwarranted intrusion into their privacy. However, these security checks are compulsory and persons refusing to be examined will not be carried. The checks are designed for the passengers’ own protection and should be fully co-operated with. Passengers should pack their own bags, and know exactly what they contain. Questions asked at check-in and during the security check should be advanced honestly and any concerns or doubts about the security or integrity of one’s reported. Bags should never be left unattended and most certainly, packages should never be accepted from strangers for carriage on board the aircraft.

Answer the questions:

1. Why must everyone in the airline industry play apart?

2. What do security officers examine? Why?

3. What do security officers examine?

4. What can be confiscated?

5. What should passengers pack and know?