The complex sentence and types of subordinate clauses

In complex sentences, clauses are not equal. One of them is the main (or principle) clause, and the other is a subordinate clause.

The traditional classification of subordinate clauses is based on the similarity of their functions with those of parts of the sentence. They are: subject, predicative, object, attributive and adverbial subordinate clauses.

1. Subject clauses perform the function of the subject to the predicate of the main clause. E.g.: What I want to do is to save us both.

2. Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicate. In the main clause we find only part of the predicate. E.g.: But the chief reason is that he will never come here again.

3. Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the main clause. E.g.: I don’t know what you are talking about.

4. Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the main clause. E.g.: My brother, who is fifteen, cannot drive.

5. Adverbial clauses perform the function of an adverbial modifier. They can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the main clause. We distinguish different types of adverbial clauses/ They are the following:

1). Adverbial clause of time shows the time of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: You can stay here as long as you want.

2). Adverbial clause of place shows the place of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: I looked where she pointed.

3). Adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: She didn’t go to see the film yesterday because she had seen it before.

4). Adverbial clause of purpose states the purpose of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: He was speaking very slowly so that everybody could understand.

5). Adverbial clause of condition states the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: I will do anything if it is in my power.

6). Adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: I enjoyed that day though it was cold.

7). Adverbial clause of result denotes the result of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: He is so weak physically that he can hardly move.

8). Adverbial clause of manner characterizes in a general way the action expressed in the main clause. In adverbial clause of manner the idea of comparison is often implied. E.g.: She did exactly as he told her.

9). Adverbial clause of comparison denotes an action with which the action of the main clause is compared. E.g.: We were going up the road as fast as we could.

15. Фонетика як наука та її галузі. Фонетика і фонологія (Phonetics as a science and its branches. Phonetics and phonology)

Phonetics is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.

There are four branches of phonetics. They are as follows: articulatory, acoustic, auditory and functional.

1) articulatory phonetics is the study of the way speech sounds are made (‘articulated’) by the vocal organs;

2) acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear;

3) auditory phonetics studies the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain;

4) functional phonetics is concerned with the range and function of sounds in specific languages. It is typically referred to as phonology. What is the main distinction between phonetics and phonology?

Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received, i.e. phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds.

Phonology is the study of those segmental (speech sound types) and prosodic (intonation) features which have a differential value in the language. It investigates the phonetic phenomena from the point of view of their use.

16. Використання мови в усній вербальній комунікації (Language use in oral verbal communication)

Language teachers are expected to know:

1) how oral speech is produced for successful verbal communication;

2) what language resources are used;

3) how they function to create a particular linguistic meaning.

Verbal communication is the process of transmitting a verbal message from a speaker to a listener through a channel.

For sending messages the communicators use a code: “any systems of signals used for sending messages. The senders are said to encode the message and the receivers to decode it”. Encoding is a process of putting the speaker’s thoughts, feelings, emotions, attitudes into a form recognizable by the listeners. The encoded message is then transmitted through a particular channel to a listener.

In verbal communication the communicators use a verbal code - language and a system of nonverbal codes (body language, touch and spatial behaviour, appearance, etc.). Language as a code consists of the following resources: a vocabulary, a grammar and a phonology. It exists in its two material forms: oral and written. Oral language form has its sound material substance, and written language form – graphic material substance.

When language is used for verbal communication the communicators 1) apply language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing);

2) to put their knowledge of language resources (phonology, grammar and vocabulary) into action;

3) produce a discourse.

A discourse is a continuous stretch of language - oral or written - which has been produced as the result of an act of communication.

17. Вимова як один із шляхів матеріалізації усної форми мови (Pronunciation as a way of materializing of oral form of language)

Phonic shaping of oral form of language is called pronunciation.

In its narrow meaning it is restricted to the features manifested in the articulation the sounds of a language.

Its wide interpretation pronunciation realizes the entity of discourse features relating to:

1) the sound system of a language (the so-called segmental phonemes and their allophones or variants);

2) the syllabic structure of a language (syllable formation and syllable division);

3) word-stress/lexical stress;

4) intonation as a complex unity of pitch (тональний), force (силовий) and temporal (темпоральний) components.

The pronunciation of English has two aspects:

a) we may want to describe what speakers do when they are speaking English. This is the aspect of SPEECH.

b) we may address the question, what are the characteristics of English words and sentences (a discourse). This is the aspect of LANGUAGE.

Speech is not the same as language. Speech is an activity; language is knowledge.

Pronunciation is the primary medium through which we bring our use of language to the attention of other people. It is a process of materializing of features relating to the system of sounds, the syllabic structure, word stress and intonation while speech is constructed.

18. Просодія як один із найважливіших явищ в англійській мові (Prosody as one of the most important phenomena in the English language).

Words in speech are not used in isolation but in phrases and sentences where they are organized according to grammar rules, get different degrees of prominence. Each syllable of a word is pronounced with a different degree of pitch and loudness of the voice, and tempo of utterance. Variations in pitch, stress, and tempo are considered to be supra-segmental or prosodic. They are traditionally termed intonation.

The most important intonation effects in a language are provided by:

1) the linguistic use of pitch, or speech melody. Different levels of pitch are used in particular sequences to express a wide range of meanings. For example, all languages differentiate between a falling and a rising pitch pattern. This distinction is used to express a contrast between ‘stating’ and ’questioning’. For example: I study at Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University. Do you speak English?

2) the linguistic use of sentence stress. It is the amount of force that given to particular words or syllables in a sentence because of the particular meaning the speaker wishes to convey in a particular situation. That strength is achieved by pitch change accompanied by greater loudness, duration and more clearly defined vowel qualities. E.g.: I want YOU to do it.

3) the linguistic use of speech tempo. It is possible to speed up or slow down the rate with which syllables, words, and sentences are produced to convey several kinds of meaning. In many languages, a sentence spoken with extra speed conveys urgency. Rapidly pronounced, clipped syllables may convey irritation; slowly drawled ones - greater personal involvement, etc. For example: Go! Go! Go!

Languages are also different in rhythm. English rhythm has quite equal intervals of time between stressed and unstressed syllables. This is defined as a ‘stress-timed’ rhythm or a stress rhythm. For example: There are few boy s in our group.

19. Порівняльна характеристика одиниць мови та мовлення (Units of language as compared with / vs / speech).

Language and speech can be the two main objects of analysis in our attempt to understand the nature and functioning of oral verbal communication. We divide them into smaller units.

In their use of language speakers express themselves mainly in sentences which can be organized into texts.

Sentences consist of phrases, and phrases consist of words. Every word consists of at least one morphem e.

A morpheme is expressed in some sequence of phonemes.

The features which are present in all the allophones are distinctive features.

Thus, the units of LANGUAGE from largest to smallest are:

Text - Sentence – Phrase – Word – Morpheme – Phoneme - Distinctive feature

The UNITS OF SPEECH:

1. A spoken discourse consists of at least one utterance.

2. An utterance consists of at least one tone unit.

3. Tone units consist of smaller ‘chunks’ - rhythmic groups.

4. A rhythmic group consists of at least one syllable.

5. A syllable consists of at least one segment and usually of more than one.

6. In the articulation of a segment, the vocal organs have some particular position. Each position or movement is an articulatory feature.

Thus, the units of SPEECH from largest to smallest are:

Discource – Utterance - Tone unit – Syllable – Segment - Articulatory feature

20. Головні варіанти вимови англійської мови (Major accents of English)

British phonologists P. Trudgill, J. Hannah, A. Hughes divide all variants of English into two major groups. They are: English-based group and American-based group.

1) the English-based group comprises English-English, Welsh English, Scottish English, Northern Ireland English, Australian English, New Zealand English.

2) the American-based group covers American English and Canadian English.

English English includes two major accents: Southern English and Northern English.

Thus, there are five major accents on the British Isles. They are:

1. Southern English or Received Pronunciation (RP)/BBC English.

2. Northern English.

3. Welsh English.

4. Scottish English.

5. Northern Ireland English.

RP/BBC English implicitly enjoys the status of the national standard of pronunciation in the United Kingdom.

In American English, three main types of literary/cultivated pronunciation are distinguished:

1. General American (GenAm, GA)/Network English which is also known as Western American. 2. Eastern American.

3. Southern American.

GenAm/Network English enjoys the status of the national standard of pronunciation in the USA.

New varieties of English or New Englishes have emerged as the result of the colonial experience: Indian English, Hong Kong English, Singaporean English, West African English, etc.

21. Класифікація голосних в англійській мові за артикуляцією (The articulatory classification of the English vowels).

The system of the English vowels was investigated by well-known British, Russian and Ukrainian phoneticians such as: Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, V. A Vassilyev, Shcherba and others.

The articulatory classification of the English vowels can be described according to the following criteria: 1. Stability of articulation; 2. Tongue position; 3. Lip position; 4. Character of the vowel end; 5. Length; 6. Tenseness.

1. According to the stability of articulation we distinguish: monophthongs (12- i:, u:, a:, ↄ:, 3:, I, e, æ, ↄ, Λ, υ, ə); diphthongs (8 - Iə, eə, υ ə, eI, α I, ↄ I, ə υ, α υ) and thriphthongs (5 - eIə, α Iə, ↄ Iə, ə υ ə, α υ ə).

2. According to the length of articulation we distinguish: long vowels (i:, u:, a:, ↄ:, 3:) and short vowels (I, e, æ, ↄ, Λ, υ, ə).

3. According to the degree of muscular tension we distinguish: tense vowels (i:, u:, a:, ↄ:, 3:) and lax vowels (I, e, æ, ↄ, Λ, υ, ə).

4. According to the lip participation we distinguish: rounded (labialized) vowels (u:, υ, a:, ↄ:) and unrounded (non-labialized) vowels (I, e, æ, Λ, υ, ə, i:, a:, 3:).

5. According to the vertical movement of the tongue we distinguish: high, mid and low vowels of narrow or broad variety (i:, u: - high/narrow variety, I, υ - high/broad variety; e, 3: - mid/narrow variety, ə, Λ - mid/broad variety; ↄ - low/narrow variety, æ, ↄ: a: - low/broad variety.

6. According to the horizontal movement of the tongue we distinguish: fully front – i:, e; front retracted – I, æ; central - 3:, ə, Λ; back advanced – υ; fully back vowels – u:, ↄ, ↄ:, a:

22. Класифікація приголосних в англійській мові за артикуляцією (The articulatory classification of the English consonants).

The system of the English consonants was thoroughly investigated by well-known British, Russian and Ukrainian phoneticians: Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, V. A Vassilyev, V.Shcherba and others.

The articulatory classification of the English consonants can be described according to the following criteria:

1) active organ(s) of speech and the place of obstruction;

2) type or kind of articulatory obstruction and manner of noise production.

1. According to the active organ(s) of speech and the place of obstruction we distinguish: labial consonants (bilabial – p, b, m, w and labio-dental – f, v); lingual consonants (forelingual-interdental - ð, θ; forelingual-alveolar – t, d, n, l; forelingual-post alveolar – r; forelingual-palato-alveolar - ∫, ʒ, t∫, d ʒ; medio-lingual-palatal – j; back lingual-velar – k, g, ŋ; pharyngeal- glotal – h.

2. According to the type or kind of articulatory obstruction and manner of noise production we distinguish occlusives, constrictives and affricates.

1) occlusive vowels are divided into: plosives and nasal sonorants. E.g.: p, b, t, d, k, g; m, n, ŋ.

2) constrictive vowels are divided into frivatives and sonorants. E.g.: f, v, ð, θ, s, z, ∫, ʒ, h; w, l, r, j.

3) affricates are t∫, d ʒ.

23. Асиміляція як універсальна характерна ознака розмовної мови. Типи асиміляції за ступенем (Assimilation as a universal feature of spoken language. Types of assimilation according to the degree).

Assimilation ismodification of a consonant under the influence of the neighbouring consonant. During assimilation a given consonant (the assimilating C) takes on the characteristics of a neighbouring consonant (the conditioning C). Aassimilation is a universal feature of spoken language. In English it can be both within words and between words.

Types of assimilation can be described according to two principles. They are:

1) according to the degree of assimilation;

2) according to the position in a word.

1. According to the degree of assimilation. The assimilating consonant takes on the characteristics of the neighbouring consonant. We distinguish partial and total assimilation.

1) Partial assimilation. The assimilating consonant takes on some characteristics of the neighbouring consonant. In the phrase ten bikes, the normal form in colloquial speech would be /te m baiks/, not /te n baiks/. In this case, the assimilation has been partial: the /n/ has fallen under the influence of the following /b/ and has adopted its bilabiality, becoming /m/. It has not, however adopted its plosiveness.

2) Total assimilation. The assimilating consonant takes on all characteristics of the neighbouring consonant.

The assimilation is total in ten mice /te m m ais/, where the /n/ is now identical with /m/.

24. Типи асиміляції за позицією у слові (Types of assimilation according to the position in a word)

According to the direction we distinguish three types of assimilation. They are: regressive, progressive and coalescent.

1. Regressive assimilation: the sound changes due to the influence of the following sound, e.g. ten bikes. Another example of regressive assimilation is reflected in the English spelling system - in the four variants of the French negative suffix in, e.g.:

indifferent, impossible, irregular, illegal, etc.

It takes place in rapid native speaker’s speech, e.g.:

/s/+/j/ =/∫ /, e.g. horseshoe, his shirt

/z/+/j/=/ʒ /, hosiery.

With a stop C, a final /t/ or /d/ may assimilate to a following initial /p/, /k/, or /b/, /g/, e.g.: goo d b oy, goo d g irl, a t p eace, etc.

It can be in informal speech, e.g.

Could you give me a call? Le t me do that for you.

/m: / /m: /

2. Progressive assimilation: the consonant changes because of he influence of the preceding consonant, e. g. lunch score articulated with /s/ becomes /∫ / under the influence of /t∫ /. They can be in some contractions, e.g. it’s, that’s.

3. Coalescent assimilation is a type of reciprocal assimilation: the first consonant and the second consonant in a cluster fuse and mutually condition the creation of a third consonant with features from both original consonants.

E.g.:

t + j = /ʧ / Is that your dog?, virtue, statue

d + j = /dʒ / Would you mind moving? education, during

s + j = /∫ / issue, He is coming this year.

z + j= /ʒ / Does your mother know it?

25. Склад як невід’ємна частина слова (The syllable as an integral part of the word).

The syllable is a group of sounds that are pronounced together. The problem of the syllabic structure of words has two aspects:

1) syllable formation

2) syllable division/separation.

Articulatorily the syllable is the minimal articulatory unit of the utterance.

Auditorily the syllable is the smallest unit of perception.

Phonologically it is a structural unit which consists of a sequence of one or some phonemes of a language in numbers and arrangements permitted by the given language.

Phonologically it performs three functions:

1. The constitutive function: syllables constitute words through the combination of their stress- loudness, duration-length, pitch-tone. E.g.: ˏ constiˊ tution.

2. The distinctive function: the difference in the place of a syllabic boundary differentiates the meanings of the words and phrases: e.g. my 'train — might 'rain.

3. The identificatory function: the listener can understand the exact meaning of the utterance only when the correct syllabic boundary is perceived: e.g. peace talks – pea stalks.

26. Типи складів в англійській мові за розміщенням голосних і приголосних (Types of the syllables in English according to the placement of vowels and consonants)

According to the placement of vowels and consonants the following types of syllables are distinguished:

I. According to the placement of vowels we have open and closed syllables.

1) Open syllables. In open syllables the vowel is at the end. Such a syllable is articulated with the opening of the mouth by the end: e.g. they, wri-ter;

2) Closed syllables. Closed syllables end in a consonant or consonants. At the end of such a syllable the mouth is closed: e.g. hun-dred, hat.

The commonest types of the syllable in English are VC (a vowel and a consonant); CVC (a consonant, a vowel, a consonant). E.g.: it, on, cat, big, etc.

Most of the words of old English origin are of one syllable. The limit for the number of syllables in a word in English is 8, e.g. incomprehensibility.

27. Типи складів в англійській мові за положенням у слові (Types of the syllables in English according to the position in a word)

Syllables can be also designated: by the position in a word and by the position in relation to stress.

1) By the position in the word we distinguish:

from the beginning - INITIAL, MEDIAL, FINAL, e.g.:

tre - men - dous

initial medial final

from the end - ULTIMATE (останній), PENULTIMATE (передостанній/другий від кінця), ANTEPENULTIMATE (третій від кінця), e.g.

tre - men - dous

antepenultimate penultimate ultimate
2) by the position in relation to stress:

PRETONIC, TONIC, POSTTONIC (Any syllable which is not tonic is ATONIC/ненаголошений).

e.g. tre - men - dous

pretonic tonic posttonic

28. Природа словесного наголосу в англійській мові (The nature of English word stress)

Word stress is singling out of one or more syllables in a word, which is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance, pitch of the voice, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the sound which is usually a vowel.

The analysis of word stress can be carried out according to the following parameters:

1) the nature of English word-stress;

2) its degree and syllabic location;

3) its functions;

4) basic stress patterns of the English words.

Phoneticians state that at least four different factors are important in making a syllable prominent. They are: loudness, length of the syllable, pitch and quality.

1) If one of the syllables in the ‘nonsense’ word ba: ba: ba: ba: is made louder, that syllable is stressed;

2) If one of the syllables in the above-given ‘nonsense’ word ba: ba: ba: ba: is made longer, that syllable is stressed;

3) If one of the syllables in the ‘nonsense’ word ba: ba: ba: ba: is said with high pitch, that syllable is stressed;

4) If one of the vowels in the ‘nonsense word’ is changed, e.g. ba: bi: ba: ba, the ‘odd’ syllable bi: will be heard as stressed.

In sum, pitch, loudness, and duration and quality make a syllable prominent in a word.

29. Типи словесного наголосу в англійській мові (Types of English word stress)

І). Types of English word stress according to its degree. One of the ways of differentiating the prominence of syllables is the degree of stress. British, Russian and Ukrainian phoneticians such as Danial Jones, Richard Kingdon, Vassilyev, Shcherba and others consider that there are three degrees of word-stress in Eng1ish They are: primary, secondary and weak.

1) Primary degree is the strongest one, e.g.: ˏ de-le-ˊ ga-ti-on;

2) Secondary degree is the second strongest one or partial, e.g.: ˏ de-le-ˊ ga-ti-on;

3) Weak degree – all the other degrees, e.g.: ˏ de-le-ˊ ga-ti-on.

The syllables having either primary or secondary stress are termed stressed. The syllables with weak stress are called unstressed.

The stress in a word may be on the last syllable, it is called the ult; on the next-to-last (the second from the end), it is called the penult; on the third syllable from the end, it is called the antepenult.

2.) Types of English word stress according to its position. Languages of the world which make a linguistic use of stress fall into one of the two types. They are: fixed lexical stress and free lexical stress.

1) Fixed lexical stress is locating the word-stress predominantly on a given syllabic location in the word.

2) Free lexical stress is allowing much more freedom for placement the stress.

The languages with fixed lexical stress are: Tatar, French, Finnish, Czech, Polish, etc.

The languages with free lexical stress are: Dutch, English, Greek, Italian, Romanian, Russian, Ukrainian, Spanish, Swedish, etc.

30. Функції словесного наголосу в англійській мові (English word stress functions).

Word stress in a language performs the following functions:

1. The CONSTITUTIVE function: it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual structure. The word does not exist as a lexical unit without word stress. E.g.: ˏ de-le-ˊ ga-ti-on;

2. The IDENTIFICATORY function: correct lexical stress enables the listener to decode the information in verbal communication adequately. Misplaced word stresses prevent understanding. E.g.: preˊ pare but not ˊ pre pare

3 The DISTINCTIVE/CONTRASTIVE function: word stress is capable to differentiate the meanings of words or their forms. There are lots of pairs of words of identical spelling in English which can be either as nouns or as verb s, e.g.: ' import (noun) -im ' port (verb), 'insult (noun) –in ' sult (verb).