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Speaking and writing
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At this point it might be a good idea to make some comparisons between written and spoken English. This is so because differences imply different types of exercises, which focus on different aspects of language and demand different levels of correctness.
Written word and oral speech as two forms of human communication differ in their realisation. Oral speech is realised in sounding word while written word is realised in its optic-graphic from. Y. Vakhekdefines written word as ‘…the system of signs that can be realised graphically. The function of these signs is to respond to a given stimulus in a static way, i.e. the answer should be stable (able to be kept in time) providing both complete comprehension and clear reflection of the facts transmitted and underlining the logical side of the facts. On the other hand, oral language is the system of signs that can be realised acoustically. The function of these signs is to respond to a given stimulus dynamically, i.e. the answer should be quick, complete and it should stress both the content and emotional side of the facts we are interested in’.
The only fact that language users face the choice between two specifically different substances of expressing themselves shows that these substances cannot be treated as something insignificant. On the contrary, these substances should be considered as main functional factors. Their differences are manifold. They can be analysed either diachronically or synchronically, as well as from the angle of their place and role in communication, etc. What is important is the majority of linguists (B.M. Gasparov, R. Kwerkand B. Strang) stick to the point that there does exist a gulf between structures of written and oral English even in speech of educated, competent users of the language. The main differences between written and oral realisations of speech can be shown as follows:
| Physical differences | |
| Written word | Oral speech |
| substance – fixed signs against the contrasting background | substance – acoustic sound waves spread in the air with the frequency 16 Hz – 4.5 kHz |
| reproduced with a hand (and a tool of writing or printing) | generated by lungs and vocal chords |
| organs of perception are eyes (visual channel) | organs of perception are eyes and ears (visual and oral channels) |
| displayed in linear succession (in space) | displayed in time successively and simultaneously |
| speech as process is displayed as a observed speech chain; it is produced with a certain effort (because writing a text needs mental and physical strain); it is produced rather slow (if not using the computer) | speech as process is not visually observed, irreversible, ephemeral; it is produced with less effort comparing with writing; shows itself easily as a rule and rather rapidly (the average tempo is more than 160 syllables per minute) |
| as result it is fixed against contrasting background; the text is stable, static and can be used by practically unlimited number of readers limitlessly in time | as result it is fixed only as mental, verbal and vocal image in the listener’s memory store; the result can be used by non-participants of the communicative act only in case of fixing it with the help of a technical device (or the communicative act participants’ reproduction word-for-word) |
| reproduction of speech for a reader in the form of a text can be done at a very great speed practically instantly (with the help of a computer) | reproduction of speech fixed on a tape can be done at the same speed speech was fixed |
| transmitted mainly from one person to unlimited number of readers | transmitted to definite participants of the communicative act, as a rule; very often from one speaker to a single listener |
| Psychologicaldifferences | |
| speech is preliminary thought over, as a rule; it is planned beforehand; notes can be made, citations can be selected, etc. | speech is spontaneous, as a rule; it is not planned in advance; thinking over is usually done in the most global, general, non-discrete, inlaid form under the strain of speech intentions |
| in the process of production the text is carefully controlled, processed, perfected and if necessary is partially or completely remade and edited. There is a limitless possibility to cross out words and sentences and add whatever needed. All this results in potentially correct, normative, processed speech | the process of production is in many ways determined by the conditions of the communicative act (setting, participants, etc.), but in any case, the speaker is deprived of the possibility to process his own speech carefully; he cannot eliminate what has already been said, even if he thinks that some more appropriate variant can be used |
| the writer has a limitless possibility to return to the corresponding fragment of a written text or re-read the whole text when he feels the urge to | the speaker/listener is usually deprived of the possibility to return to what has already been said because of an irreversible character of oral speech |
| realised in the form of written monologue (sometimes dialogue). It is taught mainly through writing and reading | realised in the form of oral dialogue and monologue. It is taught mainly through speaking and listening |
| Information in the utterance is strongly logically and consistently organised. Additional information is usually complete, exact and rather detailed. All implications are supplied in the context. Main information is usually introduced in the beginning of a passage and supported by minor facts and details | information contained in the utterance is dispersed unevenly: additional information is usually omitted. It seems to be implied by a situation. Main information is usually introduced in the beginning of the utterance, e.g.: - Where were you last night, Bob? - Oh, at the Stubbs’, they were throwing a swell party, you know. |
| Linguistic differences | |
| - redundancy is utilised in sentences realised in verbal explanatory context; - striving for versatile structures; wide usage of complex and compound sentences, variability of contexts providing wide range of possibilities to use language means and stylistic devices to the full in all genres and functional styles of written English; - accuracy in word, grammar and thought formation and formulation; irregularities in writing, as well as structural, compositional and logical organisation of the utterance are considered by the overwhelming majority of competent users of the language as illiteracy | - compression and redundancy is utilised in phrases realised in communicative situations; - striving for the stereotype pattern of speech form; wide usage of ready-made formulas, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, striving for constant renewing of the stock of language items (occasionalisms, innovations as longing for speech creativity); - hesitations, false starts, delay words, structural inconsistency, self-interruptions and self-correcting under the influence of feedback: - irregular individualised pausing; - irregularity of compression of the utterance content; - prosodic shaping peculiarities; - phonetic shaping inaccuracy peculiarities, etc. |
Potentially differences in written word and oral speech are able to make the interlocutors interpret one and the same (identical) propositional content in a different way. The difference in apprehension depends on the kind of speech realisation: written or oral.
If we compare a written notice ‘Occupied’ indicating that some seats in a tourist class on board a plane are reserved and a piece of oral information ‘ I’m sorry, these seats are occupied’ pronounced by a smiling stewardess, we shall see that the oral variant is more preferable. This is so because oral speech is poli-informative. It is able to transmit much greater amount of information than written word. Oral speech does not just transmit the main meaning of the content of a piece of information vocalised, its denotative and significative meaning. Potentially, oral speech is also capable to transmit a considerable amount of additional shades of meaning. This additional information includes connotative meaning, let alone other expressive means of human voice modulations. (It’s not without reason that B. Shaw used to say: There’re 50 ways of saying ‘yes’, 500 ways to say ‘no’, but there’s only one way to write it.)
To realise even a small part of connotative (additional) information in writing, we have to use long periods of descriptive origin, sometimes rather profound in length. We can illustrate this with a piece of writing taken from ‘Strangers When We Meet’ by E. Hunter:
- ‘Don’t cry. Mommy’s here, ’ she said soothingly, over and over again. ‘Don’t cry’.
- ‘I’ll get him, ’ Ramsay shouted.
- ‘Do you? ’ he asked coldly.
- ‘I’m sure’, he said honestly.
- ‘Really? ’ Margaret asked feigning surprise and innocence, hating the game, not wanting to see her…
In this example the author had to use a wide range of descriptive means to express in writing a whole complex of emotions and feelings swept over Margaret and revealed in one single word ‘Really? ’ pronounced by the main character of the book.