Three Reformist Sultans (1808-1876)

Despite the political and military fateful years, Sultan Mahmud II has the courage to introduce a series of fundamental reforms into the Ottoman Empire. His Vizier, Mustafa Pasha takes the initiative in resuming reforms but he is killed by the Janissaries. Mahmud abolishes the Janissary corps in 1826 and establishes a modern Ottoman Army, naming it Nizam-i Cedid, (New Order).

In 1831 Sultan Mahmud opens the first Government Hospital, and in 1833 introduces a wide series of reforms in legal, educational, scientific and other policies in an edict called “Tanzimat” (Reforms). Sultan Mahmud forbids the abuses of the governors and vakifs, killing of people at will by pashas and agas, and places legal and property arbitrations under state administration. He dies in 1839.

Sultan Abdulmejid continues his father’s reforms by replacing the Islamic Sharia Law by a European model Civil Code and Banking system. He establishes the first modern universities and academies, abolishes some unfair taxes on non-Muslims, and brings various provisions for the better administration of the public service.

In 1854 Britain and France along with the Ottomans go to war against Russia in the Crimean Peninsula. The allied forces defeat Russia and impose heavy conditions in the Treaty of Paris, signed in 1856. At the closing of the Crimean War of 1856, Sultan Abdulmejid decrees the “Hatt-i Humayun” thus promising equality in education, government appointments, and administration of justice to all regardless of creed. The greatest change was the Ottoman State’s acceptation of the notion of “minorities”. Muslim government organisations (civil and military schools) begin to accept non-Muslim citizens. The official state language (in documentation) principle (Turkish) was broken, and the Empire becomes a multi-language system. Patriarchates begin to administer justice on the state level. Sultan Abdulmejid dies at the young age of 39 in 1861.

Sultan Abdulaziz continues his brother’s reformist works. He authorises the Armenian National constitution in 1863, granting them rights in running educational, cultural, civic, social, charitable and religious matters. In 1871-76, Sultan Abdulaziz faces opposition from Islamic conservative and fanatic elements, demanding the return of the Sharia Law and the rule of Islam. His reformist Viziers, Fuad and Ali Pashas die in 1869 and 1871. The reaction from the conservatives was the rise of the liberal party, led by Midhat Pasha. As a result of the ensuing inner conflict, Sultan Abdulaziz was deposed and murdered in 1876.

After the 1870-71 French-German War, Nationalism was on the rise across Europe. It was fanning the feelings of independence among its subjects, even among Turks. The Empires in Europe were heading towards war.

The three reformist sultans, worked hard to gather all their subjects under the idea of “Ottomanism”, in order to keep the falling Empire. They rejected the notion of “Turkishness”, as historians E. Chelebi and I. M. D’Ohson testify. As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars and the rising local nationalism, the ruling Ottoman element began calling itself as the “Turk”. Abdulmejid’s son, Murad V rules for 93 days in 1876. He is deposed on the accusations of being mentally ill. He is placed under house arrest for the rest of his life, dying in 1904.

History of the Ottoman Turkish Empire II (1876-1909)