Steps in Design

1. Develop a plot plan.

2. Conduct a site analysis.

3. Assess family needs and desires.

4. Locate activity areas.

5. Design activity areas.

6. Plant selection and placement.

Develop a Plot Plan It is difficult to visualize certain aspects of design without putting it to scale on paper. The designer should think with drawings or sketches and make the mistakes on paper not on the landscape site. The plot plan should consist of 1) accurate house placement on the lot, 2) accurate lot and house dimensions with window and door placement and 3) existing driveways and/or walks. It saves a lot of time if the customer has an accu^*** r\\ot r%fth^ Ьлнса апЯ \ы onH а Ь.оиер floor plan with outside dimensions. These plans maybe secured from the builder, developer or county or city property records. Although the floor plan scale will probably be different from the scale you use, it will still be easier to convert the scale than to physically measure the house, lot, etc.

Once the house position on the lot has been determined, this should be drawn to a predetermined scale on tracing paper placed over grid paper. Commonly, i inch equals 5 feet or 1 inch equals iO feet, but you may choose another scale based upon your drawing equipment and project dimensions. Recommended drawing equipment includes: drafting pencils, T-square, scaled rulers, triangle, art gum eraser, drafting tape, grid paper (8 or 10 squares to the inch) and tracing or drafting paper. The designer must have a firm, steady working surface.

1= Ask some questions on the text for your groupmates to answer,

2. What equipment and devices are recommended for making a plot plan?

3. Match the English words and word-combinations with their Russian equivalents. Practice back translation with a partner to better memorize them:

1) a site analysis; 2) needs and desires; 3) activity areas; 4) a house floor plan; 5) outside dimensions; 6) scale; 7) T-square; 8) triangle; 9) working surface; 10) drafting paper.

a) потребности и желания; b) рейсшина; с) чертежная бумага; d) зоны активного отдыха; е) архитектурный план дома; f) масштаб; g) анализ участка; h) треугольник; к) наружные измерения; т) рабочая поверхность.

4. Explain what a plot plan is and what it is for.

ТЕХТЗ

Read the text and retell it in Russian.

Looking ahead

In practice, a good design will look ahead. You would like a water feature, so you should plan a layout with a safe sandpit or play area or lawn that will later become a pool when the children are older. You would like a herbaceous border against a sunny wall but can't devote enough time to it yet, so for the time being you could plant low-maintenance ground cover or lawn. You plan a shrubbery or 'wild' area until you have the time and money to build a summerhouse.

Don't rush things at any stage. It is a good idea to allow plenty of time for quietly gathering your thoughts about the project as a whole, and making sure that you come up with as comprehensive a statement of requirements as possible. You need time to mull over the list of your ideas and needs.

Time is also useful in getting to know what the site has to offer. An established garden - even one whose design you dislike - can contain all sorts of hidden treasures. Horticultural gems may lurk under the soil waiting for the appropriate time of year to show themselves, or a rather dull plant will suddenly transform itself into a glorious mass of flowers or autumn colour. A wait-and-see policy is recommended where there might very well be something worth

tsut deiav is also vaiuaoie *o^r tzcinnw in know < mv siic. even a bare one. You have to live in a house before you really know its advantages and disadvantages, and in the same way, only time will reveal the full potential that a site has to offer. Changing weather conditions might make you realize that you need to provide shelter from wind or noise coming from a particular quarter. New seasons can present radical differences in the amounts of sunshine or shade in particular corners of the garden, and this will certainly be taken into account when you plan the siting of any seating area, and influences the choice of plants

too. Deciduous trees seen in winter without their foliage may suddenly seem inadequate as a screen, making you decide to plan to replace them with evergreens or supplement them with a fence; on the other hand, you might find you like the extra light better than the ieafy summer canopy, and after due deliberation decide to do away with them.

1. Reproduce the text as a dialogue. Work in pairs.

2. Luok iiiiougii ihe text again and give the main point*? «_».•" paragraph in English.

3. Find the English equivalents in the text for the following Russian wf. f(\—охшТТш bin arsons:

I) листопадные деревья; 2) меняющиеся погодные условия; 3) построить дачу; 4) принимать во внимание; 5) вечнозеленые растения; 6) подходящее время года; 6) скрываться в земле; 7) после соответствующего размышления; 8) обеспечить защиту от ветра; 9) выжидательная стратегия; 10) преимущества и недостатки.

TEXT 4

Before reading the text tell your groupmates what you know about plant selection for landscape design.

Plant Selection and Placement

1) Plant selection is the last step in the design process. Up until this point, plant form, texture, color and size have been visualized, but now a name must be assigned to each plant. Plants are selected on the basis of climatic adaptability to the microclimate of the location, plant architecture and availability.

2) No matter how well a plant meets the physical characteristics for a location, if it is not adaptable to the conditions there, it will fail. These microclimate conditions include sun intensity and duration, soil conditions, rainfall, air circulation and temperature. Some plants perform better in partial or full shade than in full sun. The length of daily exposure to a particular light level also influences plant responses. Soil pH, soluble salts level and drainage

properties influence plant adaptability greatly. Plants can be selected to tolerate varied soil conditions, but the designer must have a working knowledge of available plant materials.

3) Some locations in a landscape may be characterized by little or no air movement. Plants susceptible to mites, scales and other insects will usually be attacked more severely in areas with poor air circulation. Also locations in the landscape differ as to the maximum or minimum temperatures and daily fluctuation between these extremes. Plants can be selected to tolerate one or more of these conditions.

4) Plant architecture consists of form, size, texture and color. Plant form is classified as columnar, upright, spreading, broad spreading and prostrate. Plants should be selected on the basis of their mature size or a size at which thev can be maintained easily. Texture is referred to as fine, medium or coarse. It is determined by branching habit, leaf size and shape, leaf arrangement, leaf color and leaf surface texture (dull or glossy). Plant color is determined by the foliage, flowers and/or fruits. Knowledge of a plant's seasonal color variations is essential.

5) Landscape designers must also be aware of insect and disease problems for plants they expect to include in a plan. Desirable plants are those resistant to or tolerant of pests like mites, scale, nematodes, borers, root rots, powdery mildew, wilts, galls, blights, and leaf spots. Plants in some locations must be tolerant of human abuse, air pollution and animals.

5) Usually, plants should be spaced with consideration to their mature size. Plants in large areas or groups are generally spaced to cover an area in 3 to 5 years. Piants should be spaced far enough from the house so that there is adequate air circulation near the house. Generally, space plants from the house by at least the distance of the plant radius at maturity. Spacing plants too close to the house is a common mistake.

1. Read the text and find the passages where the following ideas are
expressed:

П Snacinp nlants too close to the house is a common mistake. 2) Landscape

/ — |- ----------------- СЭ i / J.

designers must also be aware of insect and disease problems for plants they expect to include in a plan. 3) Plant selection is the last step in the design process. 4) Plants in some locations must be tolerant of human abuse, air pollution and animals. 5) Plants can be selected to tolerate varied soil conditions.

2. Ask 10 general questions on the text for your groupmates to answer,

3. Read the text again, divide it into logical parts and entitle each part so as to make a plan.

4. Write a summary of the text according to your plan,

IbXT 5

Read the text and discuss it with your groupmates.

Completing the Plan

Once you have put all the relevant detail on the plan it becomes a valuable document. You should protect and store it after taking several copies of it, using these for the field work since plan copies soon become faded, torn or dirty in the garden. Copies should also be taken to nurseries for advice or reference. Perhaps you will consult a contractor to cany out some of the work, so he or she will need copies for pricing. Once you feel that the plan is finalized, it can be well worth inking it in. This really does make it permanent and it should last for years. You may be surprised how often you need to refer back to the original, especially if you have planned to realize the project over several years.

Realizing the plan

The plan is the first but vital step towards the creation of a beautiful and functional garden and it is hoped that you will derive a great deal of pleasure from preparing it. However, it really is only the beginning. Just as it was

important to work through many stages in an organized manner to reach this point, it is equally important to work out a strategy when realizing the plan.

So, decide on what work can be done without help and what can't. Then plan the logistics of the operation and draw up a timetable; it is best to make sure that the work coincides with the appropriate seasons.

For a completely new garden, a logical sequence of operations would run as follows:

1. Site clearance (protect any trees and plants retained).

2. Land forming (first remove top soil for later replacement).

3. Marking out the borders and other areas using canes and string or the
environment-friendly paint sprays that are now available (2 and 3 are
interchangeable depending on the circumstances).

4. Laying foundations for walls.

5. Constructing the walls.

6. Laying foundations for paving, including front drive.

7. Laying the paving (except front drive).

8. Top soiling, or top soil replacement.

9. Preparing the soil for planting.

1 О т«о*о11о*: ~«~f K^tirjrr яп.Н: r. hr.t r! ir.-, ati*s, гИ»я1чггм cv^r.-.c-
xv. vi i.-^iiniig, aim, ui ii'-" - vuiuaisa, uii& auuii йУысшь.

11. Planting.

12. Preparation of proposed grassed areas.

13. Sowing grass or turfing.

14. Completion of front drive.

15. Cleaning up and final touches.

Work should begin at the rear of a house (if access is via the front) and then continue in such a way as to ensure that work already done is not damaged by pedestrians or vehicular traffic having to pass over it to reach uncompleted areas. Thus, work usually continues at the sides, and the front garden is left untouched almost until last.

If a contractor is employed, do take up references and check credentials. Preferably engage a person (or organization) who belongs to a recognized trade, professional group or association. It is usually better to get quotations that are a fixed nrice rather than an estimate. Check, too. that the onerator is luiiv insured.

1. Look through the text again and give its summary.

2. Say whether the following statements are true or false:

\ \ у, л|1 cihrvnlH Tvrotpft япН ctoTT* thp nlfint яfVp.i* tnk'ino' чрл/ртя! г*.гугъ5р.£ nf it *? Л It iс

unusual to get quotations that are a fixed price rather than an estimate. 3) The plan is the first but vital step towards the creation of a beautiful and functional garden. 4) It is good idea to make sure that the work coincides with the appropriate seasons. 5) Work usually continues at the sides, and the front garden is left untouched almost until last. 6) The work can be done without any help.

3. Ask and answer the questions on the text. Work ш pairs.

Supplementary Texts ■ ■. ^" \ ■ Г TEXT 1.. _%,

Read the text and think of the possible title.

The interior designer must consider the form and character of the exterior architecture; the site, size, character, and lighting of the interior spaces; the function of those interiors; the lifestyle and socioeconomic needs of the people who will use those spaces; and the appropriateness of any design features to be incorporated. The designer's goal is to create a coordinated and harmonious whole where the architecture, site, function, and visual aspects of the interior are unified and pleasing to mind and body. Scale is a vital factor in interior design. Furniture and accompanying accessories must be in proportion to the space they occupy and also to the human needs. Character is equally vital - whether the " feel" of the space is to be formal or informal, for example. The design and decoration of residential spaces involve a personal statement about the status,

taste, and lifestyle of its residents. Such interiors can be infinitely varied, though the overall good design criteria such as harmony of colour, texture, lighting, scale, and pleasing proportion remain paramount. The design of nonresidential spaces such as offices, hospitals, stores, and educational buildings invites a more standardized approach on the part of the designer, who will often strive for clear organization of systems and functions ahead of purely aesthetic considerations.

The terms " interior designer" and " interior decorator" are often used interchangeably as if they were identical professions. And while both may have the ability and talent to create beautiful rooms, the two are not synonymous.

What's the difference between interior design and decoration? Webster's dictionary defines interior design as " the art or practice of planning and supervising the design and execution of architectural interiors and their furnishings."

At it's heart, interior design is the art and science of understanding people's behavior in order to create functional spaces within the structures that architects design.

Interior decorators, on the other hand, are primarily concerned with surface decoration - naint. fabric, furnishings, lighting and other materials Decoration is often characterized as the furnishing or adorning of a space with appropriate (often fashionable or attractive) things.

Interior decoration is the art of decorating a room so it looks good, is easy to use, and functions well with the existing architecture. The goal of interior decoration is to provide a certain " feel" for the room; it encompasses applying wallpaper, painting walls and other surfaces, choosing furniture and fittings, such as light fixtures, and providing other decorations for the area such as paintings and sculptures.

" But wait, " you say. " Don't interior designers do that too? " The answer is often yes, but the biggest difference is that the interior designer typically has a number of other issues on his or her mind. For instance, when it comes to floor

coverings, an interior decorator will probably be responsible for choosing the type, color, texture, and pattern. The interior designer, on the other hand, will make the selection based on those criteria, with an additional eye towards the appropriateness of type, usage, sound transference, acoustic properties, static electricity requirements and flammability. He or she provides input on the functionality, efficiency and safety of a space.

1. What is the designer's goal according to the author?

2. What is interior design?

3. Name the functions of an interior designer.

4. What is interior decoration?

О. Vviiat IS ЯН iiiiciitii uCLiiidiui i tauuii^iu»\. iui.

6. Sum up the text.

TEXT 2

Read the text and say what new information it contains.

Aesthetic Components of Design Art and design are inseparable. A general definition of beauty and aesthetic excellence would be difficult, but fortunately there are a number of generally accepted principles that can be used to achieve an understanding of the aesthetic considerations in design. A thorough appreciation of design must go beyond the first impression.

The first impression of the interior of a Gothic cathedral might be that it is somewhat dark or gloomy, but, by the time the visitor senses its majestic proportions, notices its beautiful stained glass windows and the effect of light, and begins to understand the superb structural system that permitted builders of cathedrals to achieve their goals, he can truly begin to appreciate the overall aesthetic qualities. One of the key considerations in any design must be the question of whether a design " works" or functions for its purpose. If a theatre has poor sight lines, poor acoustics, and insufficient means of entry, it obviously

does not work for its purpose, no matter how beautifully it might be decorated. Such a design could be considered good only if it were thought of abstractly as a kind of walk-in sculpture. In some cases the building is meant to be sculpture rather than architecture. The Statue of Liberty, for instance, is primarily intended as a monument, despite the fact that it contains rather tortured interior spaces. To use function as the only aesthetic criterion would be limiting, but it certainly is a valid consideration to be kept in mind. Designers are often tempted to overdesign or " style" an object or interior rather than design it. Some of the most beautiful objects of the 20th century are beautiful because they were the result of purely functional considerations.

The aesthetic response to an interior and its furnishings must take into consideration the social and economic conditions as well as the materials and technology of the time. The elegant or ornate interiors that are usually associated with the 18th and 19th centuries were appropriate to the social and economic conditions of the nobility or the wealthy bourgeois who were the original occupants. The chairs were designed for formal living, and the elaborately carved furnishings were designed to be cared for by many servants. Such an interior is alien to the 21 - century way of life and would be totally inappropriate for a contemporary middle class family. It would also be inappropriate to use modern materials and processes to imitate earlier materials and processes. Many manufacturers try to make plastic look like wood, stone, or just about anything but plastic. Criteria have something to du wiih honesty. Ail interiors occur inside buildings and therefore have a very real relation to these buildings. The best interiors today, as well as in the past, are those that relate well in character and appropriateness to the. particular building. The furnishings designed and scaled for spacious country homes or palaces would obviously be out of place in a small urban apartment or suburban home.

The interiors within indifferent or unattractive buildings must strive to make up for the lack of design qualities in the structures. Thus, it is sometimes

necessary to ignore the ugliness of the building and create an inward-looking beauty if no architectural character exists. The most difficult aesthetic consideration is the problem of appropriateness. The appropriate atmosphere or character of an interior must take ail the foregoing points into consideration. The appropriateness of individual, more intimate, and small-scaled interiors is more subtle. The interior design of a discotheque would hardly be appropriate for a research library, and a coiiege classroom wouid hardiy provide the desired atmosphere for a kindergarten. Many of these responses and relationships are complex and have psychological as well as aesthetic factors.

2. Give the summary of each part.

3. Name some principles that can be used to achieve an understanding of the aesthetic considerations in design, (as mentioned in the text).

4. What other principles can you add?

5. Make a short report on art and design.

Щ TEXT 3

Read the text and name the pieces of art that were used to furnish interiors.

Art and Design

The art of interior design encompasses all of the fixed and movable ornamental objects that form an integral part of the inside of any human habitation. It is essential to remember that much of what today is classified as art and exhibited in galleries and museums was originally used to furnish interiors. Paintings were usually ordered by size and frequently by subject from a painter who often practiced other forms of art, including furniture design and decoration. Sculptors in stone or bronze were often goldsmiths who did a variety of ornamental metalwork. Many architects also designed interiors, including the accessories-furniture, pottery, porcelain, silver, rugs, and tapestries. Paintings often took the form of cabinet pictures, framed to be hung on a wall in a

particular position, such as over a door.

Mirrors were employed for adding space to an interior. The deliberate use of antiques as decoration was unusual in most periods. Generally, in older houses elements of the previous decorative scheme were relegated to less important rooms when new decoration was undertaken to bring an old interior into line with current fashion. In this way many antiques have been preserved. The art market has existed from the earliest times for the purpose of providing both new and antique works for the decoration of interiors, but in early times the market in old work was usually limited to paintings by admired masters and goldsmith's work. Only within the recent historic past have any interiors but those belonging to the rich and powerful been considered worthy of consideration. The division of the arts by museum curators into the fine arts and the decorative (or industrial) arts has helped to obscure the original functions of interior furnishings. Porcelain and silver, for instance, no longer fulfill their original purpose as part of the household furnishings but are collected into cabinets, since they are so precious. Similarly, the small porcelain figures of Meissen, which were originally Dart of a table decoration and an integral part of a service, are now too highly valued to be so used.

TEXT 4

Read the text and translate it in writing.

East Asian motifs of decoration bear no relationship to those of the West, although many of them are familiar from objects d'art and decoration exported during the last five centuries. No such conflict of styles as those to be observed in the West has existed. The motifs of Eastern art are many and varied, such as the dragon, the so-called phoenix (actually the Chinese iong-taiied pheasant), and creatures of all kinds, actual and legendary.

The yellow dragon symbolizes the power of the spirit, the tiger- the forces of animal life. Flowers and foliage are part of an elaborate flower-symbolism, and there are many abstract motifs, all of which are part of a complex and rich symbolism, which can usually be interpreted if the key is known.

The pine, willow, and bamboo in conjunction are termed the " three friends, " and represent Buddha, Confucius, and Lao-tzu. Scrolls of painting or calligraphy are characteristic of interior design in the East. Scrolls decorated with an admired calligraphy are hung on walls. Calligraphy often plays a part in the decoration of bronzes and porcelain, and inscriptions on paintings are not uncommon.

TEXT 5

Read the text and name the problems dealt with,

vViioiC iiousc Colour Scheme

When faced with four or five rooms to decorate and furnish at once visual continuity is the secret of success. Professional interior designers consider visual unity very important. Experience enables them to see the whole of a house interior as one inter-related, complete decorating unit rather than a series of separate rooms. Viewing in this way helps avoid lack of continuity.

In smaller homes where space and light are usually at a premium, creating a light, neutral-coloured background using different shades of white, cream, beige and grey in walls, woodwork and flooring always work well. Any strong colour can then be added as accents with rugs and accessories.

LINKING - WITH FLOORING

Visual continuity and a feeling of space can be achieved by using the same or similar colour floorings throughout a home. Your choice of floorcoverings do not all have to be exactly the same material or colour to produce an effect of continuity. For instance, a honey or tan miniprint carpet in the hall and on the stairs works well with, perhaps, slightly darker floor tiles in the kitchen and a toning plain caramel carpet for stripped floorboards in the living room.

Again, when it comes to floorcoverings for the whole house, neutral colours such as being, grey and cream work very successfully because they allow a wide choice of decoration.

FLOORING ALTERNATIVES

Carpet tiles are well worth considering. There are some attractive neutral colour combinations such as grey/cream or beige/cream. Border effects can be created which also help to lead the eye through from one room to another.

Patterned floorcoverings in neutral colours are a good compromise if you want to break up large expanses of floor and yet at the same time don't want anything too obtrusive. There is a lot of choice now in two-tone, small geometric designs and stripes available in both hard and soft floorings.

LINKING - WITH WALL COLOURS AND ACCENTS.

The simplest way to handle all the different colours in rooms that lead off a hall or landing is to pick several different shades of the same colour. In this way

tVimr Ь" гтлп; тр withrHit яг> гн*яг\х10 Н1япН

First, decide on the mood and whether you want it warm or cool. Magnolia, maize and deep egg-yolk yellow in rooms and a pale cream-painted hall or landing work well together and would give a warm effect. Pale blues, greys and lavender, on the other hand, would give a soft, cool feeling.

Accents in pictures, lighting and accessories also help to lead the eye through from one room to another. The eye will focus on any brilliant, primary coloured accents in an all-neutral scheme.

1. Ask and answer questions on the text. Work in pairs.

2. Explain how visual continuity can be achieved.

3. What colours are more successful for floorcovering for the whole house?

4. What helps to lead the eye through from one room to another?

II. SOME TIPS

1. MAKING A ROOM FEEL LARGER. Pale colours reflect more light than dark colours, and cool colours recede. So a combination of the two is perfect for making a small room seem larger. The lighter the colour the more light is reflected and the larger the room feels, (a)

In a room that doesn't get any sun, temperate colours - such as pale lemon­

yellow or pale lilac-grey - would be a better choice. A wall-to-wall carpet in a soft neutral colour is another way to add to the illusion of space, particularly if the skirting boards are painted in a similar colour. A neat window treatment, such as the roman blind, helps to keep the room uncluttered and spacious.

2. MAKING A LARGE ROOM COSIER. Spacious rooms can sometimes feel unwelcoming, particularly if they get little sun. So, choose a tone from the warm side of the colour wheel - for both the ceiling and wail - to create a cheerful colour scheme which draws the wall inwards slightly and the ceiling downwards, making the room feel more inviting. The strength of the tone is as important as the colour itself, so use soft mid-tones for the best results.

3. RAISING A CEILING. To make a ceiling higher, paint it in a lighter colour than the walls. The light ceiling makes the room feel taller than it really is, and the dark tone draws the walls inwards, creating an intimate atmosphere. It is important that the colour of the walls is continuous, right up to the height of the ceiling, (b)

4. TO WIDEN A CORRIDOR use a very light colour on the walls, ceiling and floor. The reflected light will make the space seem less confined, (c)

To shorten a corridor, or a long narrow room, paint the end wall in a dark or warm colour, to make it appear closer, (d)

To change the proportions of a corridor, decorate the ceiling and floor in a darker colour than the walls. The space will appear wider and lower, (e)

	л		------------------------
	■ 1
	)		i—г~в
I........ -.—II J	у	\

1. Retell each paragraph in English.

2. Write some sentences how using tones you can change the shape of a room.

3. Explain what you should do to raise a ceiling.

_TEXT 6

Elements of Design

Garden design is an art form. Like all good design, its aim is to create a satisfying composition. This must please the senses - especially the sense of sight. It must also be functional, fulfilling the designer's brief and fitting the user's intended purpose. Successful design looks good and works.

The art of garden design is particularly affected by restrictions and complications. In the first place, a garden relates to its associated architecture and its surroundings. The relationship may be a very close one: in some of the great historic gardens, plants grow between walls and'steps that match those of thp house. On a smaller scale, this relationship occurs in a modern design wlicie patio doors opening on to terraces or courtyards bring the garden indoors. Occasionally a garden is separate or remote from a house; sometimes it is completely enclosed so that the outside world does not impinge. However, in some respects a garden always remains part of the surrounding landscape. Shelter, drainage, irrigation, soil quality and so on can be improved more or less, but the garden's aspect (whether it gets morning sun, for example) and the prevailing climate (high rainfall, mild winters, and so on) are factors that you

cannot alter.

Secondly, garden design brings together elements from a number of different disciplines. Architecture and horticulture play the major parts, but there may be supporting roles for carpentry, stone masonry, sculpture and so on, or perhaps plumbing where ponds and fountains may involve complicated hydraulic engineering, and peinaps even psychology where, for example, a designer needs to contrive a plan that will keep ball games and bicycles off prized planting schemes.

tui^-flly nil +un пп№П|> п| tnntpo 'л'Ь 1 гп " " t^ Jinan n f fl-l Л Л1< г.-, ПпА furt

j, j- -', '- ■ J - д- -J ■ -.-.-! _ Li' -■

practical requirements of the users have to be fed into the design process.

To create a harmonious whole in these complex circumstances, there are a number of more or less practical tools of the trade and some useful rules of thumb. The garden designer draws on building technology for practical techniques and on art and architecture for general aesthetic principles. The materials used to realize the design are at least in part growing, living plants, constantly changing, and so horticultural considerations are needed to choose the right plants and to keep them healthy and so looking good. But the plants' part in the scheme of things is structural, just like that of the man-made elements, and providing a sound underlying structure is at the heart of good garden planning.

TEXT 7

Garden and Landscape Designs Garden and landscape designs can vary conceptually between classical/symmetrical and natural/romantic, formality and informality, utility and pleasure, and private and public. An enclosed patio garden with tubs, baskets of plants, and paving contrasts with the large " natural" garden popular in 18th-century England, where man-made elements were less historical, gardens have been designed more for private than for public pleasure. The ancient

Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans each evolved their own characteristic garden designs. Hadrian's Villa, near Tivoli, Italy, contains a vast pleasure garden that had great influence on subsequent designs. The Italian Renaissance developed formal gardens in which the outdoor landscape was considered an extension of a building. The 16th-century Villa d'Este at Tivoli is a remarkable example. In the 17th century Andre le Notre, influenced by the Italian Renaissance, created for Louis XIV of France gardens at Versailles in which symmetry, vistas, and grandiose fountains predominated. Such a design was much copied and perhaps matched human dominance over natural landscape. These classical gardens are beautiful but immaculate, formal, hard, elaborate, and logical, with straight lines, circles, trees, and hedges tamed into geometric shapes and with compartmentalized beds for flowers. They are extensions of contemporary architecture. In 18th-century England the Earl of Burlington and the landscape gardeners William Kent, Lancelot " Capability" Brown, and Humphrey Repton brought about a change whereby a " natural" philosophy of garden design began to recommend the irregular and informal. Late in the century artificial ruins and grottoes were cultivated as picturesque accessories. Famous examples include the gardens at Rousham, Stowe, and Stourhead. In the United States the leading figure in garden and landscape design was Frederick Law Olmstead.

In the East a completely separate tradition of landscape gardening evolved, starting in China and spreading via Korea to Japan. The Oriental attitude to the garden was closely linked to religious traditions. The garden was designed to induce a certain state of mind and enhance a distinctive perception. Nature predominated over man-made symmetry. Rocks were especially important and in Japanese gardens were religious symbols. The scale tended to be smaller than in Western gardens, with emphasis on tiny details. Water, trees, and bridges were vital elements. The Japanese tea garden was supposed to induce a suitable mood in the person approaching a teahouse to participate in the tea ceremony. Oriental landscape gardening, particularly Japanese, has exerted considerable influence on modern Western designs.

TEXT 8 Focal Points

Focal points are extremely valuable for structure and interest in the garden. A focal point draws and arrests the attention. On a small scale it may be one particularly striking plant among an arrangement of others in a container; at the other extreme it might be some landmark at the end of an imposing vista. As a rule only one focal point should be in view at one time, since to see two or more

seis up a conflict ui ппехсмъ and Causes CuiiiuSiuii aiiu uiShai'iiiOiiy. But you can position a series of focal points so that having been drawn to examine one, the visitor then sees the next and is induced to move in that direction. Thus you can guide the visitor quite deliberately around a garden, possibly along a predetermined route. The quality of movement these tactics contribute is an essential in designing an interesting garden.

The effectiveness of a focal point depends as much on the way the item is sited and presented as on what it is. An object on a plinth or in a frame always draws the eye. One requirement is a neutral foil or backdrop which does not compete for attention - a smooth mass of evergreen foliage or a simple wall or fence, are ideal, as is a quiet expanse of open lawn around something like a specimen tree. The arrangement of the elements in the vicinity should provide the proper context - as when a focal point terminates the view at the end of a path or lawn. An object gains interest and importance when framed by some kind of archway, as does a statue in a niche.

Exactly what constitutes the focal point depends on the styie of the garden as well as on individual taste. Ornaments and statues are favourites, and come in almost as many materials as forms. The range spans all manner of statues in the accepted sense, pieces of sculpture, vases, pots, planters, sundials, bird tables and so on in concrete, fiberglass, glass, marble, stone, wood, bronze, terracotta

and ceramics. They are very much a personal choice, but must be appropriate to the garden. The statue of a Greek maiden in a romantic pose will appear incongruous in a modern, clean-lined setting as will a modern cylindrical concrete planter in a traditional or cottage garden. The impact made by an ornament or piece of sculpture should be neither overstated nor understated -though it is wise to err on the latter side.

Buildings and structures including summerhouses, gazebos, arbours and even glasshouses are potential focal points. A seat can be an ideal focus, with the additional attraction of offering rest to the visitor. However, a focal point need not be man-made. Plants in containers or as single specimens arc suitable, provided that they stand out from their surroundings. Particularly useful are trees with a fastigiated or weeping habit, or which display distinctive characteristics, such as coloured bark, striking flowers or unusual leaves.

Some of the most successful focal points can lie outside the garden altogether - a beautiful view, a distant church tower or a lake - all make legitimate eye-catchers. But be careful that the draw is not so strong that the elements within the garden itself fade to insignificance. When a view is the focal point, it sometimes needs to be framed by trees or shrubs so that a 'picture' is

created

' " TEXT 9

Movement within the Garden j-'iiicrent snapea areas m a garden not only create ainerent mooas, tiiey also promote movement from one space to another. There are various ways of defining such spaces; even within the smallest garden much can be done to impart character through the use of just a few vertical elements - suggested areas are just as valuable as specific ones. Space permitting, however, the most successful way to create areas is by making the surrounds - be they plants, walls or fences -high enough so that they may not be seen over. The optimum is at least eye-level, but the size of the area must always be considered since high levels in a small space will naturally emphasize the limited area. When designing a garden it is also always necessary to bear in mind its use and, if an area is to be used mainly for sitting in, then eye-level height from a sitting position is perfectly adequate for the surroundings.

1 lie more an area is elongate^*, cither as a rectangle or ellipse, the more a sense of directional movement increases and can be used to advantage, suggesting anything from a leisurely stroll to a hurried walk. The psychology behind this orincinle is well worth exnlorinc and should be employed according to the demands of the area. For example, a herbaceous border is not something to pass by without pausing to enjoy the colours and. textures 01 plants and tucir relationships with each other. Such a border should be placed where the tempo is leisurely and slow. A broadly rectangular or elliptically shaped space would provide such an atmosphere - a border is best associated with a broad path or lawn.

Movement increases as the dimensions become more disproportionate until ultimately a narrow passageway results. The higher the sides or surrounds, the narrower and longer the area will appear. Again, spaces like these have their uses, making valuable links between the more open parts of the garden. They provide a sense of suspense and if they curve so that the next area is unseen, they can add a strong element of surprise. Narrow walkways can be used to theatrical effect as, historically, they often were. In gardens grand enough to afford the space they could be blind at one end, with a terminal focal point consisting of a vase or statue.

• TEXT 10

The Cottage Garden A rectangle is a convenient shape for a cottage garden, since a part can be cordoned off for the more utilitarian aspects of vegetable growing and storage,

while leaving space for the more decorative plants. The problem with cottage gardens is that they can look messy - traditionally they are collections of annuals, perennials, herbs and roses, placed just anywhere and growing in happy confusion. Here, a firm design enables these plants to be placed within a structure that gives the garden some form, but makes it seem as if it has evolved naturally.

The paved area next to the house brings a feeling of maturity to the garden by the use of old setts, bricks and stone flags laid to make a tapestry effect. Moss or grass fills the joints, softening and easing the transition from paving to lawn. Adding to the deliberately old-fashioned, romantic atmosphere is an arbour made from rustic poles, covered with climbing roses and sheltering a seat. The picket fence - again deliberately chosen for its cottagey effect - that encloses the whole garden is taller around the paved area to give privacy.

ЛИ

The curved diagonal path of stepping Ш

stones is a strong structural element, linking ^

m

both ends of the garden but in an informal ц way. At its centre is the main focal point, a §| sundial on a plinth, standing on a circle of p

s

tapestry-effect paving that links with the Щ

xuv avini-viicuifli lawn, ui enner

TEXT 11

Pale-coloured paving stones give a feeling of light and space to the area next to the house. They are laid in a simple style - a more intricate pattern would seem fussy and make the area appear smaiier. Four pots planted for seasonal colour are arranged symmetrically, and the matched seats against the side walls contribute to the balanced effect.

An ornamental pool and fountain whose water spouts from a bronze shell set in an oval niche, makes a handsome centrepiece to the paved area. This part

ui и.ic gaiuci.! шаз ucc.n ucaicu ш a au ii^li v TvJiinai wav, Willi tut itaiui^S auu

materials used providing the year-round interest. The pool surround is wide enough for sitting and is made, like the enclosed side walls and the strong retaining wall behind it, of an attractive combination of brick and flint.

The central bed behind the retaining back wall of the pool contains low-

walkways curve either side: steps to the left, and to the right a more gently rising path made of snapped flints with flat facets uppermost. The path enables heavy gardening equipment to be taken to the upper level, and the materials provide some continuity with the lower, while providing a flatter, less 'cobbled' surface.

The upper level is designed as a completely different garden, a soft retreat after the somewhat austere formality of the terrace. Indeed, since the ground slopes, a formal style would be inappropriate. The flint path leads to a rustic summerhouse overlooking an 'alpine' meadow. Surrounding planting includes conifers and heathers, in keeping with the hilly ambience.

text 12

the herb garden

Historically, herb gardens are associated with formal layouts, which this symmetrical design fittingly reflects. A small enclosed garden is a perfect environment for growing herbs and other aromatic plants which are often native to countries with warm climates. Here, sheltering walls and well-drained raised beds provide ideal growing conditions. The brick paving makes a warm, static ground cover that, together with the brick wails, unifies the whole design

The terrace nearest the house is laid in a herring-bone pattern, which has a softer effect than the straighter lines in the central section of the garden. In the raised beds on either side, an apple and a pear tree add height and continue the culinary theme. Two Versailles or similar square planters, whose colour echoes the distant pavilion, are filled with rosemary - one of the more modern upright forms would be best in this setting.

The central raised bed with low-growing herbs contains a sundial, which is

positioned low down so as not to draw too much attention away from the pavilion beyond. It is, nevertheless, the garden's centrepiece, and is meant to be appreciated during a leisurely walk around it. Four clipped bay trees form 'sentinels' that punctuate the main corners formed by the surrounding retaining walls. They are grown in terracotta pots that harmonize with the brick work.

A miirored arch, set in a recess, reflects light and creates a feeling of space on a shady wall. On the opposite wall, for balance, is a circular window shape. This could either be an opening in the wail, if practicable, or another recessed mirror to reflect the arch opposite.

The pavilion and seat beneath form the main focai point of the garden, particularly when viewed from the house, and provide a romantic and restful place to sit. Climbing plants trail over the top of the pavilion from the trellis-work on either side and add depth and the chance for a profusion of colour at greater height.