Contrastive typology, its aims and methods of investigation

І. В. Корунець

ПОРІВНЯЛЬНА
ТИПОЛОГІЯ
АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ ТА УКРАЇНСЬКОЇ МОВ

ЗМІСТ

ПЕРЕДМОВА............................................................................ 11

CONTRASTIVE TYPOLOGY, ITS AIMS AND METHODS

OF INVESTIGATION................................................................ 13

Practical Aims and Tasks of Contrastive Typology.................... 17

Methods of Investigation in Contrastive Typology..................... 19

A Short Historical Outline of Typological Investigations............ 25

TYPOLOGY OF THE PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGICAL

SYSTEMS................................................................................................................ 34

Typology of the Vowel Systems of the Contrasted Languages..................... 36

Phonetic/Phonological Oppositions in the Vowel Systems.............................. 41

Typological Characteristics of the Consonantal Systems............................... 45

Oppositions and Correlations in the Systems of Consonants........................ 55

The Syllable in the Contrasted Languages........................................................ 62

Syllable Generation and Syllable Division in the Contrasted

Languages................................................................................................................ 79

Qualitative Characteristics of English and Ukrainian Syllables..................... 83

Word-Stress and Utterance Stress in English and Ukrainian.......................... 90

Utterance Stress in English and Ukrainian......................................................... 95

Intonation/Prosody in English and Ukrainian................................................... 99

Topics for Self-Testing and Individual Preparation....................................... 111

TYPOLOGY OF THE LEXICAL SYSTEMS............................ 118

Factors Facilitating the Typological Study of Lexicon.............. 118

The Semiotic or Global Classification of Lexicon.................... 124

The Identification of Semiotic Superclasses of Words............. 126

Socially, Stylistically and Functionally Distinguished Classes

of Words.................................................................................. 130

Onomasiological and Semasiological Characteristics of Different

Units of Lexicon...................................................................... 141

Word-Formation in English and Ukrainian............................... 147

Combined Prefixal and Suffixal Formation of Words.............. 153

Substantivisation, Adjectivisation, Verbalisation and Adverbialisation

in English and Ukrainian.......................................................... 163

Specifically English Types of Word-Formation........................ 164

TYPOLOGY OF IDIOMATIC AND SET EXPRESSIONS........ 165

Topics for Self-Testing and Individual Preparation.................. 172

Exercises for Class and Homework.......................................... 173

TYPOLOGY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

OF THE CONTRASTED LANGUAGES.................................. 179

Isomorphisms and Allomorphisms in the Morphemic Structure of

English and Ukrainian Words................................................... 179

Typology of the Parts of Speech in the Contrasted Languages. 192

Typological Features of the Noun as a Part of Speech.............. 196

Morphological Categories of the Noun..................................... 201

The Category of Case and its Realisation in English and

Ukrainian................................................................................. 207

The Category of Definiteness and Indefiniteness..................... 211

Typology of the Adjective........................................................ 213

Grading of Adjectives in English and Ukrainian....................... 217

The Numeral as a Part of Speech in English and Ukrainian...... 220

Typological Characteristics of the Pronoun.............................. 224

Typological Characteristics of the English and Ukrainian Verb 231

Classes of Verbs in English vs. Ukrainian................................ 233

Ways of Expressing Morphological Categories of the.............. 239

English and Ukrainian Verb..................................................... 239

Typology of the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb (Verbals)......... 243

Other Peculiar Features of English and Ukrainian Verbs.......... 246

Typological Characteristics of the Adverb................................ 248

Syntactic Functions of Adverbs in English and Ukrainian........ 253

Statives and their Typological Characteristics........................... 254

TYPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL

WORDS................................................................................... 257

Modal Words and Phrases/Modals........................................... 257

Typological Characteristics of Prepositions.............................. 259

Typology of the Conjunctions...........................,..................... 264

Typological Characteristics of Particles.................................... 268

Typological Characteristics of Interjections/Emotives.............. 272

Topics for Self-Testing and Individual Preparation.................. 275

Exercises for Class and Homework.......................................... 276

TYPOLOGY OF THE SYNTACTIC SYSTEMS....................... 281

Syntactic Processes, their Types and Ways of Realisation........ 281

Syntactic Relations and Ways of Their Realisation.................. 291

Syntactic Relations in English and Ukrainian........................... 301

Typology of the Word-Group / Phrase..................................... 307

Types of Word-Groups in English and Ukrainian..................... 311

Typology of the Sentence........................................................ 324

Structural Types of Sentences in English and Ukrainian.......... 325

One-Member Sentences in English and Ukrainian.................... 328

One-Word Sentences/Quasi-Sentences in English and Ukrainian.... 333

Communicative Types of Sentences in English and Ukrainian. 336

The Structural Segmentation of the Sentence in English and Ukrainian 342

TYPOLOGY OF THE MAIN PARTS OF THE

SENTENCE.............................................................................. 343

Typological Characteristics of the Subject................................ 344

The Semantic Functions of the Subject.................................... 344

Typological Characteristics of the Predicate............................. 346

The Compound Predicate and Ways of Expressing It............... 348

TYPOLOGY OF THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE

SENTENCE.............................................................................. 351

Ways of Joining Different Adjuncts and Complements............ 357

in English and Ukrainian Word-Groups and Sentences............ 357

Typology of Adverbial Complements/Parts of the Sentence....: 360

Functions of Adverbial Complements in the Sentence............. 361

The Adverbial Complement of Time /Обставина часу............ 362

Allomorphic Means of Expressing Complements of Time....... 364

The Adverbial Complement of Manner/Обставина способу дії 365

The Adverbial Complement of Cause (Reason) Обставина

причини.................................................................................. 367

The Adverbial Complement of Purpose / Обставина мети...... 368

The Adverbial Complements of Result..................................... 368

(Consequence) Обставина наслідку........................................ 368

The Adverbial Complement of Condition/Обставина умови... 370

The Adverbial Complement of Concession/Обставина поступки.... 370 Adverbial Complements of Attendant Circumstances/Обставини

супроводжуючих способів дії................................................ 372

The Adverbial Complement of Comparison/Обставина

порівняння............................................................................... 373

The Adverbial Complement of Degree/Обставина ступеня.... 374

The Adverbial Complement of Measure/Обставина міри........ 374

The Detached Secondary Parts of the Sentence/ Відокремлені

другорядні члени речення...................................................... 375

The Detached Attribute/Відокремлене означення................... 376

The Detached Apposition/Відокремлена прикладка............... 376

The Detached Object/Відокремлений додаток....................... 377

The Detached Adverbial Complements/ Відокремлені

адвербіальні члени речення................................................... 378

Typology of the Homogeneous Parts of the Sentence............... 380

Grammatically Independent Elements in the Sentence.............. 382

Non-Segmentable Sentences in English and Ukrainian............. 385

Elements of Direct Address in English and Ukrainian.............. 387

Typology of the Composite Sentence in the Contrasted

Languages................................................................................ 388

Typology of the Compound Sentence...................................... 390

1 Compound Sentences with Free/Neutral Interrelations between

Their Clauses........................................................................... 391

2. Compound Sentences with Adversative Interrelations between

Their Clauses........................................................................... 392

Contrastive and Adversative Compound Sentences.................. 400

Compound Sentences with Asyndetically Adjoined Clauses.... 401

Typology of Semi-Compound Sentences................................. 404

Extended Compound Sentences in English and Ukrainian....... 406

Compound-Complex Sentences in English and Ukrainian........ 407

Typology of The Complex Sentence........................................ 408

Typology of the Complex Sentence with Nominal Clauses...... 409

Typological Features of Subject Clauses.................................. 410

Typological Features of Predicative Clauses............................. 412

Typological Features of Object Clauses.................................... 415

Typological Features of Attributive Clauses............................. 419

Allomorphic Correlations between Some English and Ukrainian

Simple and Composite Sentences............................................. 423

Typological Features of the Adverbial Clauses......................... 425

Typological Features of the Adverbial Clauses of Place (місця) 426

Typological Features of the Adverbial Clauses of Time (часу) 427

Typological Features of the Clauses of Manner/ Attendant

Circumstances (способу дії).................................................... 429

Typological Features of the Clauses of Comparison (порівняння)... 430

Typological Features of the Clauses of Condition (умови)...... 431

Typological Features of the Concessive Clauses (поступки).... 434

Typology of the Adverbial Clauses of Purpose (мети)............. 434

Typology of the Adverbial Clauses of Cause (причини).......... 437

Typology of the Subordinate Clauses of Result (наслідку)...... 439

Other Isomophic and Allomorphic Features in the System of the Composite Sentences in English and Ukrainian 440

The Complex Sentences with Mutually Subordinated Clauses. 440

Types of Grammatical Ties between Clauses in English and

Ukrainian Composite Sentences............................................... 441

Typology of the Supersyntactic Units...................................... 445

Topics for Self-Testing and Individual Preparation.................. 449

Exercises for Class and Homework.......................................... 451

BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................... 457

CONTRASTIVE TYPOLOGY, ITS AIMS AND METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

Typology as a branch of linguistics comes from " type" or " typical", hence, it aims at establishing similar general linguistic categories serving as a basis for the classification of languages of different types, irrespective of their genealogical relationship.

Contrastive typology (порівняльна типологія), as the notion itself reveals it, represents a linguistic subject of typology based on the method of comparison or contrasting. Like typology proper, which has hitherto been practised, contrastive typology also aims at establishing the most general structural types of languages on the basis of their dominant or common phonetical/phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactic features. Apart from this contrastive typology may equally treat dominant or common features only, as well as divergent features/phenomena only, which are found both in languages of the same structural type (synthetic, analytical, agglutinative, etc.) as well as in languages of different structural types (synthetic and analytical, agglutinative and incorporative, etc.).

The number of different languages which may be simultaneously subjected to typological contrasting at a time is not limited and is always predetermined by the aim pursued. The latter may be either theoretical or practical and involve the investigation of common or both common and divergent features/phenomena in the corresponding planes/aspects of the contrasted languages. The typological study of such features/ phenomena, which usually represent certain regularities in the structure of different languages may be facilitated (or made more difficult) by the existence or absence of some results hitherto obtained in the languages concerned for some other purpose and by means of other methods of linguistic investigation.

Contrastive typological investigations may be focused on various linguistic phenomena ranging from separate signs of the phonetic/ phonological, morphological, lexical or syntactic plane up to several languages. Any of these signs, features/phenomena or separate languages may be contrasted either synchronically or diachronically. But whatever

the language features/phenomena or the planes/aspects to which they belong, and irrespective of the number of languages involved, the final aims of major typological investigations are the following:

1) to identify and classify accordingly the main isomorphic and allomorphic features characteristic of languages under investigation;

2) to draw from these common or divergent features respectively the isomorphic regularities (закономірності) and the allomorphic singularities (відмінності) in the languages contrasted;

3) to establish on the basis of the obtained isomorphic features the typical language structures and the types of languages;

4) to perform on the basis of the obtained practical data a truly scientific classification of the existing languages of the world;

5) to establish on this basis the universal features/phenomena, which pertain to each single language of the world.

Contrastive typological investigations are both various and manifold, they may involve a separate language feature or phenomenon pertained to some genealogically close or genealogically far/alien languages, and they may involve several features or phenomena pertained to many genealogically close or genealogically different languages. Besides, the object of Contrastive typology may as well be separate features and language units or phenomena pertained to both living and one or more dead languages. Consequently, the object of investigation may involve an extensive language area/material or it may involve a restricted object/ material of investigation. Due to this there are distinguished several branches of typological (or Contrastive typological) investigation often referred to as separate typologies. The main of these typologies are as follows:

1. Universal typology which investigates all languages of the world and aims at singling out in them such features/phenomena which are common in all languages. These features are referred to as absolute universals. Their identification is carried out not only on the basis of the existing (living) languages but also on the basis of dead languages like Sanskrit, ancient Greek or Latin. Also the hypothetic abstract etalon language created by typologists for the sake of investigation is widely made use of by universal typology. This " language" plays a very important

role in foreseeing the quantitative representation of various features/ phenomena in different languages. Universal typology on its part provides the etalon language with all necessary data concerning the quantitative representation of various phonetical, lexical and grammatical features or means of expression.

2. Special or charactereological typology, in contrast to universal typology, usually investigates concrete languages, one of which is, as a rule, the native tongue. The language in which the description of isomorphic and allomorphic features is performed is usually referred to as metalanguage. In our here case the metalanguage is English.

3. General typology has for its object of investigation the most general phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic or stylistic features. This typological approach to the morphological structure of words in different languages enabled the German scholar W. Humboldt to suggest the first ever typological classification of languages (on the morphological basis).

4. Partial typology investigates a restricted number of language features/phenomena; for example, the system of vowels/consonants, the means of word-formation or the syntactic level units. As a result, several level typologies are distinguished: a) typology of the phonetic/ phonological level units; b) typology of the morphological level units; c) typology of the lexical level units; d) typology of the syntactic level units.

5. Areal typology (ареальна типологія) investigates common and divergent features in languages of a particular geographical area with respect to their mutual influence of one language upon the other. A scientific generalisation of such long-term influences in the phonetic/ phonological, lexical or even grammatical aspects of different languages of multinational areas like Dagestan, the Balkans, Transcarpathia/ Transcaucasia and others is of considerable theoretical and practical value.

6. Structural typology has for its object the means of grammatical expression, the order of constituent parts at the level of words, word- combinations and sentences. Structural typology aims at identifying mainly dominant features, which characterise the structural type of each of the contrasted languages.

7. Functional typology, as can be understood from its name,

investigates the frequency of language units in speech, the regularities and particularities of their use with the aim of expressing different meanings.

8. Content typology investigates the types of possible meanings expressed by various language units and their forms in the contrasted languages. Worth mentioning are also some other branches of typological/ Contrastive typological investigations as:

9. Qualitative typology, investigating predominant features (phonetic, morphological, syntactic) in the contrasted languages and characterising them according to the predominance of some of these qualities. Hence, languages are found to be vocalic, consonantal or tender, harsh, etc. Due to the predominance of some morphological features languages may correspondingly be identified (classified) as synthetic, analytical, agglutinative, etc.

In opposition to qualitative typology quite obvious is the existence of

10. Quantitative typology which was singled out and identified by the American linguist J. Greenberg. The aim of this typology is to investigate the quantitative correlation of some features and phenomena and their identifying (dominant) role in the contrasted languages. Thus, taking into account the small quantity of inflexions and the great role of analytical means as prepositional connection and placement of components in English word-groups and sentences, this language can be identified by its syntactic structure as predominantly analytical. Apart from these there are distinguished some other equally important for typological or Contrastive typological investigation branches of this linguistic subject, the most well-known among them being the following:

11. Semasiological typology which investigates the ways of expressing meaning (the inner content) of language units in the contrasted languages.

12. Onomasiological typology is a part of semasiological typology. Its object of investigation is isomorphic and allomorphic ways of giving family names and nicknames to people in different contrasted languages. For example, in English: Love, Hope, Lem, Ivy; Mr. Crabtree (Backbite, Gradgrind, Knowall); in Italian: Cane (family name " Dog"), Marchellino (little Mark), Colombo (Pigeon), etc. And in Ukrainian: Люба (Love),

Надя/Надія (Hope), Лепестина (petel-like, petel), Любомир (Peace Loving), Горох (Pea), Часник (Garlic), Клен (Maple), Береза (Birch), Неїжмак (Don't-eat-poppy seeds), Сороксобак (Forty dogs) and the like Ukrainian Cossacks nicknames which became family names.

13. Synchronic and diachronic typologies investigate language units or phenomena of a definite level with the aim of establishing isomorphisms and allomorphisms in their form and meaning during a definite historical period (or periods) in the contrasted languages.