The category of time correlation

Gerund do not have the category of tense and can not refer an action directly to the present, past or future. Their time reference can be understood through the reference of the action expressed by the gerund to the time of the finite verb. The category of time correlation is revealed in the opposition of non-perfect and perfect forms.

The non-perfect gerund may describe:
1. the action that takes place at the same time with the action of the finite verb
He is/was/will be surprised at seeing us.
2. an action that follows the action of the finite verb
She has an odd feeling about going to the party the following day.
3. an action that refers to no particular time
Stretching exercises helped him to relax.
4. an action that precedes the action of the finite verb

Non-perfect gerund can be used to express actions that precedes the action of the finite verb
- after verbs of recollection: recall, recollect, I could not remember going to school for the 1^st time.
- after verbs/predicative word group of gratitude: appreciate, be grateful for, the thankful for, be glad about, Thank you for helping us at this critical moment,

- after verbs/predicative word groups of blame and reproach: accuse, blame, be responsible for, he was sorry for arriving late.

- after verbs of punishment: disciple for, I was fined for perking on the pavement.

- of reward: admire, I can’t approve of his leaving school when 16, commend for/on

- after the prepositions: on, upon, after and since winnin’ the prize he gained world-wide recognition.

Perfect gerunds in these cases emphasize the gap of time between the actions of the finite verb and the gerund.

The category of voice
Gerunds of transitive verbs have voice distinctions.
I prefer reading to being read.
Gerunds are active in form, but passive in meaning after the predicative word group be worth and the verbs of deserve, need, require and want.
The essay was not worth reading.

6. SYNTACTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GERUND
The verbal character of the gerund is expressed in its combinability.
- gerund can be modified by adverbials
I enjoy walking slowly in the park.
- gerund can take prepositional objects
I have no objections to hearing about his travel again.
- gerunds of transitive verbs take direct and indirect objects
His hobby is watching TV. Thank you for providing us shelter.
The nominal character of the gerund reveals itself in its syntactic functions and combinability.
- gerunds can function as subjects, predicative or object. It’s so nice meeting you.
What pleased him was dancing with the princess.I like dining out.
- gerunds used as predicatives, objects, attributes or adverbials can take prepositions
The way to achieve success is by joining our effort.Fear sometimes stops you from doing stupid things.Robinson never lost hope of leaving an island.On taking off the plane disappeared in the clouds.
- gerunds can combine with nouns in the possessive case or possessive pronouns
I am proud of my students’ coming first in the tournament. Excuse my calling so late, Jess.
- gerunds can combine with the determiner NO. There is no avoiding the fight.
Gerunds perform their syntactic functions alone or in combination with other words.

7. VERBALS AS SUBJECTS
Inf subjects follow 2 pattern. In p1 the inf subject if placed 1^st.
To compromise appears advisable. vs. P2 is characteristic of everyday language. The inf subject is introduced by a formal subject IT. It appears advisable to compromise.
Interrogative sentences follow p2.
any form of the inf can be used to express the subject.
simple - To understand is to forgive.
phrasal - To ask him again was impossible.
complex- For him to earn bread was a problem.

Gerund subjects follow 3 patterns.
p1. Gerund subjects precede the predicates. Any form can be used.
Learning without thought is labour lost.
p2. The introductory IT is placed 1^st to emphasise the meaning of the gerund subject. Any form of the gerund can be used. Common predicates in such cases are: be of no use, be no good, be worth, make all the/no difference It’s no good beating about the bush.
p3. The introductory THERE is used to emphasise gerund subjects preceded by NO. Only non-perfect gerunds follow this pattern. There is no avoiding the fight.
simple- Studying is important.
phrasal- Studying computers becomes important nowadays.
complex- Irene’s studying foreign languages will do her a world of good.

8. THE INFINITIVE AS A PART OF A PREDICATE
Predicates are mainly expressed by non-perfect inf, both active and passive.
The inf can be: simple - His plan was to return.
phrasal- His plan was to keep the affair secret.
complex - His plan was for us to join the group.
The subject of the CNP with an inf predicative can be expressed by:
1. certain nouns – action, advice, his aim was never to return

2. words all, the most, (the least we can do is to escape) with an attribute clause attached to them
3. a single inf, inf phrase or inf construction - To see is to believe.
4. a clause - What Napoleon wanted to do was to fight the whole world.
Inf can be used as a part of a predicative. It’s mainly the non-pefect active inf.
She is easy to deal with.
The inf used as a part of a predicative follow:
-adj – my granny is pleasant to talk
-nouns – such problems are fun to solve
In this function the inf are active in form but passive in meaning. Japanese is difficult to learn.

9. THE PARTICIPLE AS A APT OF A PREDICATE
The predicate is the second main part of the sentence and its organizing centre. Structurally, it can be either simple or compound. There are compound nominal and compound verbal predicates. Non

Ps in simple verbal predicates
Non-perfect P1 active after the auxiliary ‘be’ is used in continuous tense forms.
P2 after the auxiliary ‘be’ is used in passive tense forms.
P2 after the auxiliary verb ‘have’ is used in perfect tense forms.

Ps in compound predicates
The P as a predicative.
A predicative is a notional part of a compound nominal predicate. The structural part of a compound nominal predicate is expressed by a link verb. Non-perfect active P1 and P2 can function as predicatives. His remark seemed hurting.

Non-perfect active P1 is used as a predicative after link verbs look, remain, the girl seemed smiling at us.
With the link-verb ‘be’ P1 becomes adjectivized and loses its verbal character.
P2 is used as a predicative after a wider range of link verbs. Besides look, remain., seem we can employ be, become, get, grow, feel, stay and turn.
P2 of a transitive verb denotes a state which is usually the result of a prior action. ex: the poor puppy remained locked for 2 days.

Occasionally Ps2 of transitive verbs can also be used predicatively. These Ps are passive in form, but active in meaning. I hope you are fully recovered from your operation-

The P as part of a compound verbal predicate

Some scholars believe that non-perfect P1 or P2 (rarely) can act as part of a compound verbal predicate of double orientation. Others suppose that it is used within a subjective participial construction that acts as a complex subject.

ex: she was heard singing a lovely song.

10. THE GERUND AS A PART OF A PREDICATE
The gerund as a predicate.
The notional part of a compound nominal predicate – the predicative – can be expressed by any form of the gerund. The link verb BE is used as the structural part of the predicate.
What I hate is being told what to do.
Gerund predicatives can be introduced by prepositions: like, by, in for Swimming is like flying in the sea.
simple- His favourite pastime is cooking.
phrasal - The only remedy for such a headache is going to bed early.
complex- The main problem is your staying out late.
The gerund as a part of a compound verbal modal predicate
Non-prefect gerunds, active and passive, for a CVMP with the modal expression can not help. The audience couldn’t help laughing.
The gerund as a part of a compound verbal aspect predicate
Non-prefect gerunds form CVAP with verbs denoting various stages of process:
- its beginning – begin, burst out, commence, the child started crying
- its continuation – carry on, continue, keep, go on with
- its ending – cease, give up, finish, leave off, quit, stop, discontinue

11. THE INFINITIVE AS AN OBJECT
Any form of the inf can be used as an object.
The inf objects are found after several patterns:
p1. monotransitive verbs/set phrase + inf,

- monotransitive verbs – agree, aim, arrange ex: have you agreed to meet them?
The set phrases that take inf objects are: take care, take the trouble, can afford, cannot bear he made sure to lock the door.
p1Most monotransitive verbs and set phrases take a non-perfect inf object. However, some vebs may occur with perfect inf forms
- perfect inf after the verbs claim, hate swear, which express actions that precede the action of the finite verb. ex: she claims to ‘ve seen him before
- after the past forms o the verbs attempt, expect, hope, intend, mean, plan, try express the action which were not fulfilled ex: I ment to ‘ve done it, but the time was not right.
p2 ditransitive verb +n/pronoun +inf
- ditransitive – advise, bribe, command ex: i’ve tried to persuade him to come.
p3 predicative adj/participle +inf
- come after link verbs – be, seem, feel, get, turn, become, we were eager to join them
- Non-perfect inf can be used after: be afraid, be angry, be free to choose your hobby
- Both perfect and non inf can be used after: be amused, be annoyed, I was ashamedto have let him down.i’m glad to see u!
p4 verb + IT + adj/noun +inf
The inf can be preceded by the int IT used in combination with adj or nous. The verbs that take an inf object when it is preceded by an introductory IT are: believe, I consider it natural to help each other, feel, find, have, make, presume, reckon, think
Inf objects can be:
simple- I promise to wait.
phrasal- I was alarmed to see him there as I did not know what to say.
complex- I saw him grasp her hand.

12. THE GERUND AS AN OBJECT
Gerunds can be used as direct or prepositional objects.
I remember staying with them.-I was conscious of being watched.
Direct objects follow:
- monotransitive verbs (adore, appreciate, avoid) I don’t mind your coming late
- the predicative word group be worth
- expressions can bear, I can stand being mocked at.
- after be worth, deserve, need, require and want gerunds are active in form, but passive in meaning The plants want watering daily.
- gerund objects can be introduced by IT + adj. They found after verbs: believe, I consider it natural to helm each other, find, hold, judge, presume, reckon, think
Gerunds used as prepositional objects follow:
- monotransitive verbs and phrasal vebs (agree to, approve of, boast of) we ‘re lookin’ forward to going on the cruise.
- ditransitive verbs (u cant accuse him of being nonchalant, assist in, congratulate on)
- predicative adjectives/ participle II (be accustomed to going in for sport, be afraid of, be aware of)
Any form of the gerund can be used in this function. Non-perfect gerunds can express actions that precede the actions of the finite verb after:
-verbs of recollection: recall, I couldn’t recollect my going to the theatre for the 1^st time, remember and their opposites: forget, overlook, disregard
- verbs of gratitude: appreciate, be glad about, be grateful about
- verbs of blame and reproach: accuse, blame, be hold responsible for
- verbs of punishment: discipline for, fine for, punish for
- verbs of reward: admire, approve of, commend for/on
Perfect gerunds emphasize the gap of time between the actions of the finite verb and the gerund. I bitterly regretted ever having mentioned it.
Structurally, gerund objects can be:
simple - Did you talk about painting?
phrasal- Did you talk about painting a picture of my cousin?
complex - Did you talk about his painting a picture of my cousine?

13. THE INFINITIVE AND THE GERUND AS ATTRIBUTES.
Inf used as attributes in English are postmodified, i.e. they follow the modified word
a box to carry. Inf attributes come after:
1.class or abstract nouns- The idea to go on holiday appealed to me.
2. the noun-substitute ONE- My brother is the only one to understand me.
3. pronouns – personal, indefinite, universal, negative and reflexive
The Browns have only me to look after their children.
4. adverbs NOWHERE SOMWHERE - I have nowhere to go.
5. ordinal numerals and the words the lest, the next followed by ind inf
He loves parties: he is always the first to come and the last to leave.
6. expressions of quantity a great deal of, a good deal, enough, few, little (more), many, no more, (too) much, followed by ind inf - we ‘ve plenty to discuss.
Any form of the inf can function as an attribute
simple - I have a lot to think about.
phrasal - I have a lot of books to read for the exam.
complex - have a lot of books for my children and grandchildren to read.

Gerund attributes can be placed before or after the modified nouns.
When gerunds are used as postmodifiers, they are preceded by prepositions
art, chance, custom, duty, effort, fear, feeling, gift, habit, hope, idea, importance, intention, manner, means, method, necessity, pleasure, point, possibility, problem, right, risk, sense, sign, sound, tragedy – OF
apology, excuse, explanation, grounds, instruction, remedy, plan, preparation, reason, rules – FOR
difficulty, experience, harm, interest, skill – IN
astonishment, disappointment, surprise – AT
precaution, warning – AGAINST
confession, objection – TO
She has a sense of having lost something important.
Any form of the gerund can be used as a postmodifier.
Non-perfect active gerunds can be used as premodifiers. They show a person’s occupation or what an object is intended for. - a reading room=a room for reading
simple - I hate the sound of drilling.
phrasal - Humour is a way of saying something serious.
complex - Just think of the tragedy of our teaching children not to doubt.

14. PARTICIPLES AS ATTRIBUTES

Non-perfect pI and pII can function as attributes. They are used to modify nouns or pronouns.

There are restrictions on the use of participles as attributes. We use attribute clauses beginning with WHO, WHICH or THAT

1. to describe the actions that come before the actions of the finite verb. (The mechanic who repaired the car/repairing the car)

2.to speak about repeated actions or habits (People who read newspapers always know the latest news/The gentlemen reading the newspaper is my uncle)

3.when the clause contains a verb that describes a mental state, emotions and attitudes – know, believe, like, hate and etc (People who know two languages are called bilingual).

The participle attribute can be placed either before or after the modified word. The former is called a premodifier; the latter is known as a postmodifier.

A PREMODIFIER can be expressed by:

*a single participle – the slipping dog looked nice

*P II in a short participle phrase containing an adverb. – he looked at newly repaired roof

A POSTMODIFIER can be expressed by:

*a single participle – the problem remainin’ still bothered me

*a participle within a phrase. – the audience excited by the performance clapped cheerfully

A premodifier functions like an adjective describing a state, appearance or permanent occupation, a postmodifier stresses the action.

Attributes can change their meaning according to their position (a concerned expression – the people concerned, an adopted child – the solution adopted).

Unlike participle II of transitive verbs, Participle II of some intransitive verbs are active in meaning. They denote passing into a new state. As some verbs can be both transitively and intransitively, their Participles II can have both active and passive meanings: closed, diminished, hidden, returned, etc. ex: the letter had some hidden meaning vs.he laid hidden in the leaves
Structurally, there are: -simple Participle attributes (expressed by single Ps) – everybody admired the smiling baby.

-phrasal Participle attributes (expressed by Participle phrases). – the gentlemen reading the newspaper is my uncle.

Participles in combination with adjectives/adverbs or nouns can form compound modifiers that function as adjectives and can be used as attributes. /A+P: hard-earned success, angry-looking baby, top-ranking officer, never-biting dog; N+P: awe-inspiring dentist, life-giving treatment, nerve-racking film, etc

15. INFINITIVE AS AN ADVERBIAL.

1.PURPOSE: are found either after the predicate or at the beginning of the sentence; may be introduced by conjunctions so as or in order (formal) – the conjunctions are common before stative verbs (know, be, have) and negative infinitives. we do sports to relax

2.RESULT/CONSEQUENCE: follow the words they modify:

1)adjectives or adverbs modified by too I was too tied to dance

2)adjectives, adverbs or nouns modified by enough I’m not strong enough to do it

When enough follows the modified word – quality; when precedes – quantity.

3)adjectives modified by so. Infinitives in this cases are introduced by as. I’m not such afool to believe u!

3.COMPARISON: are introduced by as if, as though, than. The infinitives preceded by as if, as though have an additional meaning of purpose and manner. Mary smiled as if to say ‘no’ When such infinitives are introduced by than, the predicate groups include adjectives or adverbs in the comparative degree. After than the marker to is optional. they were more willing to discuss than (to) act.

4.SUBSEQUENT EVENTS: follow the predicates of the sentences and denote actions that take place after the actions of the predicates. Such infinitives are sometimes introduced by the adverbs never, only, merely, simply. The conjunctions emphasise the idea of surprise and disappointment; they make the actions denoted by the infinitives look pointless or irrelevant. (He worked to become/ worked and became the richest man in the world).

5.TIME: follow the predicates of the sentences. Their actions marked out the moment of time up to which the actions of the predicates are performed. my grandpa lived to be a 100

6.CONDITION: can be expressed by the verbs of sense perception (see, look, watch, hear, listen, feel, touch etc.) They can either follow or precede the predecates. The predicates of such sentences denote the consequences; they are commonly the verbs of mental activity (think, believe, consider, imagine etc.) The conditional meaning is often supported by the future tense form or the conditional mood form of the finite verb. to look at Less you will think she is still in her teens.

7.EXCEPTION: denote actions which are the only possible ones in the situation. They are introduced by but and except and found only in negative or interrogative sentences. The infinitives are used without their marker to. we don’t do much in the evenings except watch TV

INFINITIVE ADVERBIALS can be simple - I’m not strong enough to do it

phrasal – she was careful never to repeat the mistake.

complex- this tea is too hot for you to drink

16. PARTICIPLES AS ADVERBIALS

Ps can be used as adverbials of time, reason, condition, concession, comparison, manner, attendant circumstances and subsequent events. (!) The action or state expressed by a P adverbial refers to the subject of the sentence.To make the meaning of the sentence clearer, we can use conjunctions: as if, as though, if, once, though, unless, until, when, while.
1. TIME: denote
-actions or states that take place at the same time with the action of the finite verb. To stress the idea of simultaneity, the speaker may introduce participles by conj. when or while; saying it she was perfectly serious

-actions or states that precede the action of the finite verb. (Having travelled all over the over the world, he returned tied and happy)
2. Any Participle can be used as an adverbial of REASON. Participles may be placed before or after the predicate. (we rushed to the station hoping to catch the last train) P1 used as an adverbial of reason often combines with a negation. (Not knowing wht to answer, I pretended deaf)

3. Ps used as adv of CONDITION may be introduced by if or unless. The predicates of such sentences are often used either in the future tens forms or in the conditional mood forms. Ps may be placed either before or after the predicates. (if smiling, he would look friendlier; if offered a job- I will accept)

4. Ps used as adverbials of CONCESSION are introduced by though or although. Ps may be placed either before or after the predicates. Bob was sad though smiling

5. Ps used as adverbials of COMPARISON are introduced by as if and as though. He looked at if hypnotizing, hypnotized, being etc)

6. Non-perfect active P1 can be used as an adverbial of MANNER characterizing the action or state of the predicate. She climbed the hill, balancing on the stones.

7.Non-perfect active P1 as an adverbial of ATTANDANT CIRCUMSTANCES and the predicate of the sentence denote parallel actions. We can use conjunctions and or, seldom, but to paraphrase such sentences. The P is placed after the predicate. He has been in 3 revolutions fighting for freedom.

8. Non-perfect active P1 used as an adverbial of subsequent events denotes an action that follows the action of the finite verb. we left at dawn. returning late at night

Difference between AoM, AC, SE:
He walked limping /manner/; He walked whistling /AC; an action that happened when he walked/; He walked home, arriving by noon/one follows another/.

Structurally, a P adverbial can be (1)simple – expressed by a single P- she was quiet as if sleeping (2)phrasal – expressed by a participle phrase – Having done the housework, I rushed to a disco; (3)complex – expressed by a participial construction – with the work done you’ll be able to enjoy life..

17. GERUND AS AN ADVERBIAL

Single gerunds, gerunds in phrases or predicative constructions can be used as adverbials of 1.Attendant circumstances (besides, instead of, without) non-perfect gerunds – besides being clever, u must be industrious.

2.Manner (by, in, without) mainly non-perfect – we spend the night in dancing.

3.Purpose (for) non-perfect – he did it for encouraging the crew

4.Condition (but for, in case of, without) any form – without working u cannot achieve results.

5.Reason (because of, for, for fear of, from, on account of, owing to, through) any form – he is running a fever because of having caught in the rain.

6.Concession (despite, in spite of) any form in spite of being mocked at, he will continue paint.

7.Time (in, at, before, after, on, upon, since) at checking his report, I came across several mistakes.

The prepositions in and at show simultaneity, they are followed by non-perfect gerunds. The actions of non-perfect gerunds introduced by before followed the actions of the finite verbs.

The non-perfect gerund after the prepositions on/upon, after/since can express an action that precedes the action of the finite verb. The perfect gerund after these prepositions emphasises the gap of time between the action of the finite verb and the action of the gerund. EX: On running home, u’ll be able to finish the book

18. FOR-TO-INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION AND ITS SYNTACTIC FEATURES

The for-to-infinitive construction consists of

*a nominal element expressed by

1)a noun in the common case

2)a personal pronoun in the objective case

3)some other pronoun

It is introduced by the preposition for.

*a verbal element – an infinitive or an infinitive phrase.

The elements of the construction are in secondary subject-predicate relation. The infinitive describes an action that is performed by the nominal element. The agent of the action expressed by the infinitive is different from the subject of the whole sentence.

!! He has brought a book to read/He has brought a book for you to read.

Rendered into Russian with the help of either an infinitive or a clause.

Functionally, the infinitive and its agent form a syntactic complex which can be used as

1)a complex subject (It is unlikely for a bridge to collapse like that)

2)a complex predicative.(That was for him to decide)

3)a complex part of a predicative.(The decision was not easy to arrive at)

4)a complex object(I think it is rather strange for you to ask questions like that)

5)a complex attribute (The only thing for us to do was to leave immidiately)

6)a complex adverbial of

*purpose(The gentleman stepped aside for the lady to pass)

*result (He spoke slowly enough for everybody to understand)

*comparison (It would be better to move to your parents than for them to leave their home)

Any form of the infinitive can be used within the constructions.

19. PREDICATIVE CONSTRUCTION WITH THE GERUND AND ITS SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS

The predicative construction with the gerund is a construction in which a gerund or a gerund phrase expresses the action or state of the nominal element. In other words, the gerund refers to a subject of its own. The subject of the gerund is different from the subject of the sentence. The elements of the construction are in secondary subject-predicate relation.

The nominal element of the construction can be expressed by

*a noun in the possessive case – I was happy about Emma’s coming.

*a noun or nouns in the common case (1 noun - when the agent is emphasised or when it denotes lifeless thing) I was happy about Emma coming to visit us

*a possessive pronoun or a personal pronoun in the objective case. – I admire his crossin the channel on a stormy night.

*some other pronoun: all/both/each(of), this, that, something, everybody etc. – Bob insisted on both of them coming in time

Often rendered into Russian by nouns or subordinate clauses.

Any form can be used.

The elements of the construction form a syntactic complex that operates as one syntactic whole (complex subject – our arriving really bothered her, predicatives – what worries me most is being late, objectes – we are worried about the kid travelling on his own, attributes – he liked the idea of getting away from it all, adverbials(time – on his coming on stage we broke in to applause, manner – bob passed without my noticing him, purpose-, condition –, concession - in spite of being late, he managed to finish the work, reason – im nervous because of their being unpuctual)).

20. THE OBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS CONSISTS OF

*a nominal element (1.a noun in the common case, 2.a pronoun in the objective case, 3.some other pronoun)

*a verbal element (infinitive or infinitive phrase)

These elements are in secondary subject-predicate relations. Functionally, the elements of the construction form a syntactic complex – a complex object.

We want to stay/We want you to stay

The OIC can be rendered into Russian by a subordinate clause, a simple sentence, a noun phrase.

The OIC is used after verbs of

* sense perception (after notice and see the verb be is not used) (He felt a hand touch his shoulder)

*mental activity (any form of the verb) (I believe her to be watching tv right now)

*feeling and emotion (He loved her to sing to him)

*wish and intention(desire, choose, mean, want) (any form) (I ment you to have arrived by train)

*declaring (pronounce, declare, report) (any form)(He pronounced a country to be in a state of war)

*compulsion and order (cause, order, get, have, make) (have and make with bare infinitives) (The last drop makes the car drive over)

(order and allow used if the object – noun/pronoun denoting lifeless thing or if the inf is passive)

*permission (allow, let) (let with bare inf) (Don’t let anybody interfere with what you can do)

*some verbs requiring a prepositional object (count on, listen to, rely on/upon) (He was listening to the president speak)

21. OBJECTIVE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTIONS AND ITS SYNTACTIC FEATURES

The OPC consists of 2 elements.

The nominal element denotes the agent of the action expressed by the participle or participial phrase; it is not the subject of the sentence. (a noun in the common case, a personal pronoun in the objective case, some other pronoun)

The verbal element describes the action or state of the nominal element. It can be expressed by either non-perfect participle I or participle II

The elements of the construction are in secondary subject-predicate relation. Functionally, the elements form a syntactic complex – a complex object.

Rendered into Russian either by a clause or an infinitive.

OPC are found after verbs of

*sense perception (He listened to his brother playing the piano)

*wish and preference (I prefer my orders obeyed)

*causative meaning (have, get, keep, leave, start, set) (A good manager knows how to keep things doing)

The construction with participle II after have and get can also show that the subject of the sentence

1)requested the action expressed by the participle (I had my hair cut)

2)experienced the action expressed by the participle.(I had my purse stolen and my tooth extracted)

*mental activity (believe, consider, understand) (only participle II is used)(I believe him engaged to Helen)

Participle – when the process (I saw him crossing the street)

Infinitive – the state of the action being complete (I saw him turn the page)

22. SUBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION

The SIP is a construction in which the verbal element is in predicate relation to the nominal element (a noun in the common case, a pronoun in the nominative case, some other pronoun).

The nominal element of the construction is the agent of 2 actions – that of the predicate and that of the infinitive. Any form can be found with passive voice forms of certain groups of verbs of:

*sense perception (he was soon heard to open the door)

*mental activity (The book is believed to have been lost)

*saying (announce, declare, report) (He is said to have made a great speech at the meeting)

*the verb make (It wasn’t his fault. He was made to do it)

+after some intransitive verbs in the active voice (seem-appear, chance-happen, prove-turn out).

He seemed to be reading my thoughts

I appeared to have been there before

Used with the phrases: be (un)likely, be sure, be certain, be definite.

The report is likely to be presented tomorrow

[21: 12: 39] Sashenka: G and P I as predicatives

A gerund – the action of the subject, its state or identity. A participle – gives the subject a qualitative assessment.

The only remedy for such a headache is going to bed. (G)

This remark is hurting (P).

23. ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION

Nominative APC consists of 2 elements. The nominal element denotes the agent of the action expressed by participle, it is not the subject of the sentence (a noun in the common case, a pronoun in the nominative case, some other pronoun, the adverb there). The verbal element describes the action or state of the nominal element. The elements of the construction are in secondary subject-predicate relation. Any participle can be used.

Functionally, the elements of the construction form a syntactic complex. The NAPC can be used as a complex adverbial of

*time (the documents examined the customs officer let us go) *reason(there being little time left, we rushed to the station) *attendant circumstances/manner(She looked at the audience, her eyes wondering) *condition(time permitting, they will visit us)

The construction is separated by the comma/commas or a semicolon. Is typical of literary or scientific style.

Prepositional APC is introduced by the preposition with.

The nominal element of the construction (a noun in the common case, a personal pronoun in the objective case, some other pronoun) denotes the agent of the action expressed by the verbal element.

The verbal element of the construction describes the action or a state of the nominal element. Any participle can be used within the construction.

The elements of the construction form a syntactic complex. The construction can function as a complex adverbial of manner (I felt awkward with all these people staring at me), attendant circumstances (she sat with her hands lying in the table), reason(he couldn’t wolk with his leg broken) or time (with the work done u can enjoy life). Its interpretation depends on the text.

24. THE GERUND AND THE INFINITIVE

Gerunds and infinitives reveal a lot of similarities as they share some nominal and verbal features. The nominal nature is more noticeable in gerunds, while infinitives have essential verbal characteristics.

Unlike infinitives, gerunds can be

1)preceded by prepositions when used as (angel) prepositional objects (She won’t apologise for being rude to me), (beer) predicatives(You failure was in wasting time), (coffee) attributes (She lost hope of becoming a singer) and (d) adverbial modifiers (After taking a shower, I will be ready to go).

2)modified by possessive pronouns or nouns in the possessive case. (My being so slow made him nervous)

Certain verbs, predicative word groups and expressions can be followed by gerunds and never by infinitives. On the other hand, there are verbs, predicative word groups and expressions that take only infinitives.

Infinitives follow: afford, ask, care, choose, dare, decide, expect, fail, hesitate, manage, refuse; be delighted, be surprised; can afford, would love, would hate.

Gerunds follow: adore, consider, enjoy, finish, imagine, miss, recall, risk etc; accuse of, decide on/against, look like; succeed in; be aware of, be good at, proud of; cannot help/stand.

There are verbs, predicative verb groups and expressions that can be followed either by infinitives or gerund without significant difference in meaning. But! Gerunds are more general in meaning, they often express habitual activities. Infinitives are more specific, bound to paaticular actions or occasions.

In the same way, the verbs learn, teach are followed by gerunds when the speaker refers to general activities, talking about getting a particular skill or result of the study, we use infinitives.

Some verbs, predicative verb groups, phrasal verbs nd expressions convey different meanings depending on the non-finite form that follows them.

GO ON+gerund(to continue without stopping)

GO ON+infinitive(a change of activity) She went on talking about the film for at least half on our then she went on to discuss her Sunday shopping

TRY+gerund(make an experiment) Tim tried lifting heavy objects to work the muscles

TRY+infinitive(make an effort that failed) I tried to lift the case, but it was to heavy for me

MEAN+gerund(involve) Teaching young learners doesn’t mean being a child yourself

MEAN+infinitive(intend) I mean to teach young learners

STOP+gerund(to not longer continue to do smth)

STOP+infinitive(to end an activity for a short time)

BE USED TO+gerund(привыкать, приучаться чему-либо) I’m used to driving British cars^ I used to have Rolls-Royce.

USED+infinitive(имел привычку/обыкновение, делал раньше)

Gerunds after REMEMBER, FORGET, REGRET, BE SORRY describe actions that precede the action of the finite verbs.

After DESERVE, NEED, REQUIRE, WANT active gerunds or passive infinitives are used when the subjectct experiences the action. When the subject performs an action, we use active infinitives.

Gerunds after ADVISE, ALLOW, PERMIT, FORBID, RECOMMEND, ENCOURAGE in the active voice are used if there are no other objects. Infinitives are used when there are 2 objects or after the passive voice forms of these verbs. She will regret leaving him/ We regret to say that the match is cancelled.

Глаголы, после которых возможны и герундий, и инфинитив (without important difference in meaning):

*be afraid (of) (gerund is preferable)

*begin, continue, start (inf: when the state rather than action; when the agent is a lifeless thing; after continuous forms of the verbs)

*be interested(inf is used to talk about reactions to things one learn; inf/gerund – a wish to find something)

*like/dislike+gerund – to talk about injoinment

like/dislike+inf – choices or habits.

*prefer+ gerunds (can be introduced by to/rather than)

prefer + inf (only rather than)

!!! WOULD RATHER, WOULD PREFER, WOULD LIKE are always followed by infinitives.

*rely on, count on, listen to + 1)OIC, 2)gerunds, 3)predicative constructions with the gerunds.

25. GERUND AND OTHER -ING FORMS.

The G/The verbal noun

The Verbal noun – unlike the gerund – shows no grammatical verbal features. Verbal noun have plural forms. (count your blessings) When they denote lifeless things, they can combine with numerals or words of quantity(a building – several buildings). Verbal nouns take articles. (your hair needs a good brushing) Verbal nouns can be modified by 1)of-phrase attributes and 2)adjectival attributes.

The Gerund developed from the verbal noun that became verbalized in the course of time.

*Gerunds have some morphological characteristics of verbs. (voice distinctions and a relative time reference expressed through the category of time correlation). – doing/being done

*Gerunds can be modified by adverbials. Verbal noun- by attributes. doing the exercises regularly was a routine(G) – Regular doing exercises was a routine.(verbal noun)

*Gerunds of transitive verbs can take direct objects. even at old age he would not give up reading books vs. the reading of the book did him a lot of good.

The G/Participle I

Unlike P I, the G has nominal characteristics.

*G can be preceded by prepositions (we would spend hours /in/ playing chess - /G/ -/P/)

*G can be modified by nouns in the possessive case or possessive pronouns (On his coming. we sat down to dinner) – G vs. Coming home, he us at dinner – P)

*G can function as subjects and objects. (worrying never did anyone any good (a subject) vs. some people seem to enjoy worrying (an object))

G and P I as attributes.

G – show a person's occupation or what an object is intended for. (we have a new dancing teacher)

P – denote the action of the modified nouns (have u ever seen a dancing teacher of math?)

Still, there are cases that can be interpreted in either way. The context makes the meaning clear

-a hunting dog – a dog for hunting OR a dog that hunts.

Like participles, gerunds as postmodifiers are preceded by prepositions.

G and P I as predicatives

A gerund – the action of the subject, its state or identity. A participle – gives the subject a qualitative assessment.

The only remedy for such a headache is going to bed. (G)

This remark is hurting (P)G and P I as adverbials.

G always take prepositions. – On arriving home he phoned us

P – either used independently or preceded by conjunctions. – When arriving home, he phoned us.

Some adverbials may be confusing to a Rissian-speaking learner of English.

In Russian a negative phrase 'НЕ+ деепричастие' shows either condition or reason.

In English WITHOUT+ gerund describes condition. To give reasons we employ NOT+ participle.

Both gerunds and participles can be used as adverbials of manner and attendant circumstances.