Unit 2 Methods of sociological research

1. What does the scientific method involve?

Research in sociology begins when a sociologist wants to know why a particular social phenomenon occurs. Durkheim was an early French sociologist who wanted to know why people committed suicide. He was not satisfied with psychological explanations of suicide and decided to explore various sociological explanations. Using government statistics, he concluded that suicide is depen­dent on social circumstances. He identified three basic types of suicide. Egoistic suicide relates to social isolation and individualism: it occurs when people have weak ties with a community. Conversely, altruistic suicide occurs when people whose ties to their social groups are so strong that they commit suicide for the good of the group. Anomic suicide occurs when social normlessness occurs in times of stress and disruption. Durkheim applied a sociological perspective to a phenome­non that was considered to be strongly psychological in origin. He also used empirical methods. Both approaches reflect his contribution to the development of sociology.

The first step in the model research process is defining the problem in a precise way. It is often difficult to determine clearly and precisely how to measure a particular phenomenon. Researchers develop operational definitions to help define a concept in a measurable way. They employ theories to suggest possible explanations. Doing so provides some order in the analysis process and helps to avoid starting from scratch. A review of the literature enables us to determine what is known about a particular issue. It also helps us to resolve differences of opinion and to identify relation­ships among the factors as precisely as possible.

Sociologists frequently form hypotheses in their quest for explanations. A hypothesis is a tenta­tive statement that predicts how two or more variables relate to one another. A variable is any factor that is capable of change. To test hypotheses, researchers need facts, statistics, and other forms of data. The type of data required influences the choice of method that sociologists use to test their hypotheses. They need to gather enough information so they can understand the problem and test their hypotheses. Doing so is often difficult because researchers encounter problems in collecting data. Also, a given set of data is sometimes open to various interpretations. Once the data have been gathered, the next step is to analyse this information. Sociologists then form conclusions based on the results of the analysis. This process is not a one-step process but a developmental sequence in which theory spurs research. Research, in turn, generates new theories, which themselves produce more research.

2. What are some of the difficulties in sociological research?

Most of the difficulties in sociological research emerge because people are studying other people. Researchers strive to make findings that others can repeat and that achieve widespread accept­ance. Validity and reliability are the two key benchmarks employed. Validity is the degree to which a scientific study measures what it attempts to measure. Reliability is the degree to which a study yields the same results when repeated.

The specification of the relationships between variables is also difficult. Sociologists focus on identifying cause-and-effect relationships, relationships in which a change in one variable is caused by a change in another. This goal is not easy to accomplish, however. There may be many factors at work, making it difficult to identify the key causal factors. In addition, a correlation between two variables (in which one changes as the other changes) may not always indicate a causal connection. A spurious correlation occurs when two variables are correlated but are not necessarily linked causally. Distinguishing meaningful from spurious correlations is central to sociological analysis.

People are not reducible to simple cause-and-effect equations, a fact that makes establishing causal relationships difficult. Furthermore, social variables may not remain constant over time or from place to place. Finally, objectivity is a particular problem for sociologists because one human being is studying others. Personal values and ideologies may come into play more than in the other sciences.

3. How are methods and theories linked in sociology?

There is a very close link between methods and theories. Theories help explain social phenomena and help suggest the appropriate methods to employ. Durkheim took a functional approach to suicide, which governed his methods and analysis. Those following an action approach might take a very different approach to methods and analysis because of the different focus of that theoretical orientation: they would focus on the meanings of suicide for individuals instead of on the structure and function of society. The use of one theory or another is not particularly correct or incorrect, but simply brings a different perspective to the topic studied. In short, theory affects the questions asked; those questions, in turn, determine the choice of methods.