Word-groups and phraseological units.

1. Word-groups are an integral part of the vocabulary of the English language. The degree of structural and semantic cohesion within groups may be different, may vary. Free (variable) word-groups (to read a book; next year) are studied in syntax. The word-groups that seem to be semantically and functionally inseparable are regarded as set-expressions (or phraseological units). Such word groups are the subject matter of phraseology. Phraseology is viewed either as a special branch of Lexicology (by Arnold), or as a selfcontained branch of linguistics (prof. Kunin).

2. There are two factors that influence the ability of words to form wordgroups. They are: (a) lexical, and (b) grammatical valency of words. The point is that compatibility' is determined by restrictions imposed by the inner structure of the English word stock (Ex. a bright idea = a good idea; but it is impossible to say " a bright performance", or " a bright film"; " heavy metal" means difficult to digest, but it is impossible to say " heavy cheese"; to take [catch] a chance, but it is possible to say only " to take [notcatch!!! ] precautions").

The range of syntactic structures in which words may appear is defined as their grammatical valency. The grammatical valency depends on the grammatical structure of the language:

to persuade - to convince smb. of smth, smb to do smth, smb. that...

Any departure from the norms of lexical or grammatical valency can either make a phrase unintelligible or be felt as a stylistic device. 3. If approached structurally, all word groups may be classified:

a) By the criterion of distribution they may be divided into endocentric - all groups that have the central member, which is functionally equivalent to the whole word group (Ex. a beautiful girl [girl is the center of the WC], very important [important is central]). Besides, there are exocentric groups - groups, which have no central member (Ex. he works; about John).

b) According to the central member, all endocentric word groups can be subdivided into nominal word groups (a beautiful girl), verbal (to readwell), or adjectieable (very important) etc.

c) Endocentric word groups fall into:

Coordinative - if they have distribution of two or more members (Ex. cats and dogs).

Subordinative - if they have distribution only of one of its members (Ex. a beautiful girl).

d) According to the syntactic pattern all word groups are divided into predicative (he works) and non-predicative (very happy).

The meaning of word groups can be defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component words but it is not a mere additive result of all the lexical meanings of components. The meaning of the word group itself dominates the meaning of the component members (Ex. an easy rule, an easy person).

The meaning of the word group is further complicated by the pattern of arrangement of its constituents (Ex. school grammar- grammar school).

That's why we should bear in mind the existence of lexical and structural components of meaning in word groups, since these components are independent and inseparable. The syntactic structure (formula) implies the description of the order and arrangement of member-words as parts of speech (" to write novels" - verb + noun; " clever at mathematics" - adjective + preposition + noun).

As a rule, the difference in the meaning of the head word is presupposed by the difference in the pattern of the word group in which the word is used (to get + noun = to get letters / presents; to get + to + noun = to get to town). If there are different patterns, there are different meanings. BUT: identity of patterns doesn't imply identity of meanings.

Semanticallv. English word groups are analyzed into motivated word groups and non-motivated

word groups. Word groups are lexically motivated if their meanings are deducible32 from the meanings of components. The degree of motivation may be different.

A blind man - completely motivated

A blind print - the degree of motivation is lower A blind alley (= the deadlock) - the degree of motivation is still less. Non-motivated word-groups are usually described as phraseological units.

The first classification of phraseological units was advanced for the Russian language by a famous Russian linguist Vinogradov.

According to the semantic criterion of motivation and the functional criterion of stability he classified phraseological units into:

(a)phraseological collocations. Phraseological collocations with groups with clearly motivated meaning and relative stability (Ex. " to take smth. for granted", " to meet the requirements", " to take offensive);

(b) phraseological unities which are completely motivated. Their meaning is transparent (Ex. " to look a gift horse in the mouth" = to examine a present critically);

(c)phraseological fusions that have the meaning which completely absorbs the meaning of components. They are completely non-motivated and stable (a mare's nest = rubbish, nonsense). The classification is open to criticism, since it doesn't take into account the stractural characteristics of these units. Moreover, the criterion of the degree of motivation is rather subjective.

Prof. Smirnitsky suggested another classification of phraseological units - it's an attempt to combine the structural and semantic principles.

Phraseological units are treated as word equivalents and they are grouped into:

(a) one-summit units => they have one meaningful component (to be tied, to make out);

(b) multi-summit units => have two or more meaningful components (black art, to fish in troubled waters).

Within each of these groups Prof. Smirnitsky classified phraseological units according to the part of speech of the summit constituent. He also distiguished proper phraseological units or units with non-figurative meaning and idioms that have transferred meaning based on metaphor.

This classification was criticized as inconsistent, because it contradicts the principle of idiomaticity advanced by the linguist himself. The inclusion of phrasal verbs into phraseology wasn't supported by any convincing argument.

Prof. Amosova introduced another classification. Her approach is contextual. If 3 word groups make variable context the main feature of phraseological units is a fixed context

Units of a fixed context are subdivided into phrasemes and idioms. Phrasemes are as a rule two member units. One component of such units has a phraseologically bound meaning and the other component serves as the determining context.

(Ex. small talk, black market - " talk" and " market" serve as a determining cm-text).

In idioms the meaning is created by the whole though every element may have its original meaning weakened or even completely lost. Idioms may be motivated and demotivated. Motivated idiom is homonymous to a free phrase, which is used figuratively41 (to rule with a rod of iron = to rule despotically). A fixed context does not necessarily imply a specialized meaning of components because they may simply have a narrow range of valency (to shrug one's shoulders). Sometimes the criterion of invariability is overestimated while the criterion of the degree of idiomatisity is disregarded.

The classification system of phraseological units suggested by Prof. Kunin is the latest achievement in Russia. This classification is based on the combined structural-semantic principle and considers different aspects of stability. He subdivides all set expressions into:

(a) phraseological units (idioms)

(b) semi-idioms;

(c) phraseomatic units.

Phraseological units are structurally separable language units with completely or partially transferred meanings (to kill 2 birds with one stone; to be in brown stubby = to be in low spirits). Semi-idioms have both literal and transferred meanings. Their first meaning is usually terminological or professional. And the second meaning is transferred (Ex. to lay down one's arms- сложить оружие). Phraseological units have literal and phraseologically bound meanings (Ex. safe and sound, to pay attention to smth.). Prof. Kunin assumes that all types of set expressions are characterized by the following aspects of stability:

(a) stability of views - implies ready-made reproduction;

(b) semantic complexity,

(c) permanence of lexical composition (or lexical stability);

(d) morphological and syntactical fixity;

(e) refusal to follow the pattern of free word combinations

Idioms and semi-idioms are much more complex in structure than phraseological units. They have a broad stylistic range and they admit of more complex occasional changes.

Taking into consideration the structural and semantic complexity of set expressions, Prof. Kunin regards phraseology as a selfcontained branch of linguistics. Set expressions are not regarded as word-correlates.

Phraseological stability distinguishes set expressions from free word groups and compound words.