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Native words






 

Native words, though they constitute only 30% of the English vocabulary, are the most frequently used words. Native words are subdivided into twop groups: Indo-European and Common Germanic.

The oldest layer of words in English are words met in Indo-European languages. there are several semantic groups of them:

a) words denoting kinship: father (Vater, pater), mother (Mutter, mater), son (Sohn), daughter (Tochter);

b) words denoting important objects and phenomena of nature: the sun (die Sohne), water (Wasser);

c) names of animals and birds: cat (Katze), goose (Gans), wolf (Wolf);

d) names of parts of a human body: heart (Herz);

e) some of the most often used verb: sit (sitzen), stand (stehen);

f) some numerals: two (zwei), three (drei).

A much larger group of native vocabulary are Common Germanic words (German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic). Here we can find the nouns: summer, winter, storm, rain, ice, ground, bridge, house, life, shoe; the verbs: bake, burn, buy, drive, hear, keep, learn; the adjectives: broad, dead, deaf, deep. Native words have a great world-building capacity, form a lot of phraseological units, they are mostly polysemantic.

BORROWINGS More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish). Borrowed words are different from native ones by their phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms. It is also characteristic of borrowings to be non-motivated semantically.English history is very rich in different types of contacts with other countries, that is why it is very rich in borrowings.Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria: a) according to the aspect which is borrowed; b) according to the degree of assimilation; c) according to the language from which the word was borrowed. Classification of Borrowings According to the Borrowed Aspect There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, saemantic borrowings, morphemic borrowings. Phonetic borrowings are the most characteristic ones in all languages. They are called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning. then they undergo assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of theborrowing language. In some cases the spelling is changed. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed. Such words as labour, travel, table, chair, people are phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenklatura, sputnik are phonetic borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian; lobby, Ostarbaiter, iceberg are phonetic borrowings from German.Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme) translations of some foreign words or expressions. The notion is borrowed from a foreign language bur it is expressed by native lexical units. to tale the bull by the horns (Latin), fair sex (French), collective farm (Russian).Semantic borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the language is borrowed: there are semantic borrowngs between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning to live for the word to dwell which in Old Englishhad the meaning to wander.Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language: goddes (native root + Romanic suffix -ess), uneatable (English prefix un- + English root + Romanic suffix -able). Classification of Borrowings According to the Degree of Assimilation The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors: a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed (if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier); b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form (words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker); c) how often the borrowing is used in the language (the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated); d) how long the word lives in the language (the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is).Accordingly, borrowings are subdivided into: 1. completely assimilatedCompletely assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words in the language. Completely assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs: correct – corrected. Completely assimilated nouns form their plural by means of s-inflexion: gate – gates. In completely assimilated French words the stress has been shifted from the last syllable to the first one: capital, service.2. partly assimilated Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups: a) borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed: sari, sombrero (clothing), taiga, steppe (nature), rickshaw, troika(foreign vehicles), rupee, zloty, peseta (money); b) borrowings non-assimilated grammatically: some nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek retain their plural forms – bacillus-bacilli, genius-genii; c) borrowings non-assimilated phonetically, e.g. some French borrowings retained their stress on the final syllable or special combinations of sounds: police, cartoon, camouflage, boulevard; d) borrowings partly assimilated graphically, e.g. in Greek borrowings ph denotes the sound [f] (phoneme, morpheme), ch denotes the sound [k] (chaos, chemistry).3. non-assimilated (barbarisms). Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are borrowings which are used by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, e.g. addio (Italian), tкt-б- tкt (French), duende (Spanish). Classification of Borrowings According to the Language from which they were Borrowed a) Romanic borrowings (Latin and Greek). Zhey appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto; b) French borrowings: words relating to government – administer, empire; words relating to military affairs: soldier, battle; words relating to jurisprudence: advocate, barrister; words relating to fashion: luxary, coat; words relating to jewelry: emerald, pearl; words relating to food and cooking: dinner, appetite; c) Italian borrowings: bank, bankrupt (the 14th century); volcano, bronze, manifesto, bulletin (the 17th century); various musical terms – falsetto, solo, duet; gazette, incognito (the 20th century); d) Spanish borrowings: trade terms – cargo, embargo; names of dances and musical instruments – tango, rumba, guitar; names of vegetables and fruit; e) Scandinavian borrowings. There are 700 of them. they are such nouns as bull, cake, egg, knife; such adjectives as flat, ill, happy; such verbs as call, die, guess; pronouns and connective words same, both, though; pronominal forms they, them, their; f) German borrowings. There are 800 of them: geological terms – zink, quarts, gneiss; words denoting objects used in everyday life – kindergarten., lobby, rucksack; units borrowed in the period of the Second World War – SS-man, Luftwaffe, Bundeswehr;; units borrowed after the period of the Second World War – Ostarbeaiter, Volkswagen; g) Dutch borrowings. There are about 2000 of them. They were mainly borrowed in the 14th century: freight, skipper, pump (they are mainly nautical terms); h) Russian borrowings: words connected with trade relations – sterlet, vodka, pood, copeck, rouble; words which came into English trough Russian literature of the 19th century – zemstvo, volost, moujik; words connected with political system – udarnik, collective farm, Soviet power, five-year plan.

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