Brief review of evolution

Read the text and translate it.

A central organizing concept in biology is that life changes and develops through evolution, and that all life-forms known have a common origin. Introduced into the scientific lexicon by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829) in 1809, evolution was established by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) fifty years later as a viable theory when he articulated its driving force: natural selection. Evolution is now used to explain the great variations of life found on Earth.

Darwin theorized that species and breeds developed through the processes of natural selection and artificial selection or selective breeding. Genetic drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the modern synthesis of the theory.

The evolutionary history of the species - which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended - together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is known as its phylogeny. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of DNA sequences conducted within molecular biology or genomics, and comparisons of fossils or other records of ancient organisms in paleontology. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics.

The theory of evolution postulates that all organisms on Earth, both living and extinct, have descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago. Biologists generally regard the universality and ubiquity of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favour of the theory of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.

Additional information

Phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relatedness among groups of organisms (e.g. species, populations), which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices.

Phenetics is an attempt to classify organisms based on overall similarity, usually in morphology or other observable traits, regardless of their phylogeny or evolutionary relation. It is closely related to numerical taxonomy which is concerned with the use of numerical methods for taxonomic classification.

Cladistics is a method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and all its descendants (and nothing else). For example, birds, dinosaurs, crocodiles, and all descendants (living or extinct) of their most recent common ancestor form a clade. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single " branch" on the " tree of life", a monophyletic group.

Vocabulary

evolution – эволюция

origin – происхождение

natural selection – естественный отбор

species (pl. species) – вид; особь

breed – порода

artificial selection (selective breeding) – искусственный отбор

genetic drift – генетический дрейф

genealogical – генеалогический

phylogeny – филогенез

genomics – геномика

paleontology – палеонтология

phylogenetics – филогенетика

phenetics – фенетика

cladistics – кладистика

ancestor – предок; родоначальник

gene pool – генный пул; генофонд

genetic code – генетический код

archaea – археи

eukaryotes – эукариоты

matrix (pl. matrices) – матрица

morphology – морфология

trait – признак; характерная черта

clade – филогенетическая ветвь

monophyletic group – монофилетическая группа

mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria) – митохондрия

Pronunciation

Task 2.

Transcribe the words from this lesson and read them out aloud.

Evolution, articulate, Earth, theorize, artificial, genealogical, analyze, phylogeny, ancient, paleontology, phenetics, cladistics, natural, species, ancient, bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes, universe, matrix, classification, ancestor, descendant, dinosaur, crocodile.

Word study

Task 3.

Test your memory. What's the English for:

Концепция, движущая сила, приемлемый, разнообразие, подход, сравнение, принимать без доказательств, вездесущность, доказательство, попытка, сходство, несмотря на что-либо.

Task 4.

1. Find the words in the text with the same root as the words in the table and translate them.

2. Choose the proper word (verb or noun) from the table above to complete the sentences, paying attention to the grammar.

a) It sounds fine in..., but will it work in practice?

b) Would you... her experiments as serious work or as mere entertainment?

c) I admire his passionate... in what he is doing.

d) It is a well known... of the heart to a pump.

e) They have... a group of top scientists to solve this problem.

f) My scientific advisor is a person who needs no....

Task 5.

Match words on the left and right to form a word combination used in the text above. Make five sentences of your own with these word combinations.

Task 6.

Match the words below with their definitions and translate the sentences.

Gene pool, natural selection, matrix, paleontology, genetic drift, evolution, selective breeding (artificial selection), last universal ancestor, breed, species.

1.... is the process of change in the genetic composition of a population due to chance or random events rather than by natural selection, resulting in changes in allele frequencies over time.

2.... is the process by which humans breed animals and plants for particular traits. Typically, strains that are selectively bred are domesticated, and the breeding is normally done by a professional breeder. Bred animals are known as breeds, while bred plants are known as varieties, cultigens, or cultivars. The offspring of two pure breed animals but of different breeds is called a crossbreed, and crossbred plants are called hybrids.

3. In biology, a... is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. It is often defined as the largest group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.

4. The... is the set of all genes, or genetic information, in any population, usually of a particular species.

5.... is the change in the inherited characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. This process gives rise to diversity at every level of biological ogranization, including species, individual organisms and molecules such as DNA and proteins.

6. The last... is the most recent organism from which all organisms now living on Earth descend. It is estimated to have lived 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago.

7.... is the gradual process by which biological traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of the effect of inherited traits on the differential reproductive success of organisms interacting with their environment. It is a key mechanism of evolution.

8. In biology,... is the material (or tissue) in animal or plant cells, in which more specialized structures are embedded, and a specific part of the mitochondrion that is the site of oxidation of organic molecules. The internal structure of connective tissues is an extracellular.... Finger nails and toenails grow from....

9. A... is a specific group of domestic animals or plants having homogeneous appearance (phenotype), homogeneous behaviour, and/or other characteristics that distinguish it from other organisms of the same species and that were arrived at through selective breeding.

10.... is the scientific study of the organisms of previous geological periods. It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms' evolution and interactions with each other and their environments. Such observations have been documented as far back as the 5^th century BC. The science became established in the 18^th century.

Task 7.

Think of an English variant of the words in brackets, and then translate the sentences into Russian.

1. Charles Darwin was the first to formulate a (научное утверждение) for the (теория эволюции) by means of (естественный отбор).

2. Natural selection is the only known cause of (адаптация), but not the only known cause of evolution. Other, nonadaptive causes of evolution include (мутация) and (генетический дрейф).

3. In the early 20^th century, (генетика) was integrated with Darwin's (теория) of evolution by (естественный отбор) through the discipline of (популяционная генетика). The importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of (биология).

4. (Ученые) continue to study various aspects of evolution by forming and testing (гипотезы), constructing (научные теории), using (экспериментальные данные), and performing both (полевые и лабораторные) experiments.

5. (Биологи) agree that descent with modification is one of the most reliably (установленные факты) in (наука).

6. Discoveries in (эволюционная биология) have made a significant impact not just within the (традиционный) branches of biology, but also in other (научные дисциплины) (e.g., (антропология) and (психология) and on society at large.

Grammar

Task 8.

Revise the ways of making questions. Make questions to the underlined parts of the sentence.

1. Species and breedsdeveloped through the processes of natural selection and selective breeding.

2. Biologistsorganize and analyzeevolutionary relationships through various methods, including phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics.

3. Cladistics is a method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades.

Task 9.

Make questions of different types to each sentence.

1. Evolution is the change in the inherited characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.

2. All life-forms have a common origin.

3. Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck introduced " evolution" into the scientific lexicon in 1809.

4. The last universal ancestor lived 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago.

Comprehension

Task 10.

Choose the right answer according to the information in the text.

1. Evolution was introduced into the scientific lexicon by... in 1809.

a) Charles Darwin

b) Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck

c) James Hutton

2. Charles Darwin proved that the... of evolution was natural selection.

a) unimportant force

b) restrictive force

c) driving force

3. Evolution is now used to explain the... of life found on Earth.

a) great similarity

b) great extinction

c) great variations

4. Darwin proved that species and breeds developed through the processes of natural and artificial....

a) reproduction

b) selection

c) survival

5. The theory of evolution postulates that all organisms on Earth, both living and extinct, have descended from a (an)... ancestor.

a) unknown

b) common

c) hardy

6. The last universal ancestor of all organisms is believed to have... about 3.5 billion years ago.

a) disappeared

b) performed

c) appeared

7. Phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relatedness among groups of organisms, which is discovered through morphological data... and molecular sequencing data.

a) matrasses

b) matrices

c) molecules

8. Phenetics is an attempt to classify organisms based on... similarity regardless of their phylogeny or evolutionary relation.

a) periodical

b) dependent

c) general

9. The clade... of an ancestor organism and all its descendants.

a) influences

b) consists

c) excludes

10. In the terms of biological systematics a clade is a... group.

a) monophyletic

b) biophysical

c) monophase

Task 11.

Decide if these statements are true or false according to the text, if any of them is false, say why and correct it.

1. Charles Darwin considered natural selection to be the driving force of evolution.

2. Evolution has never explained the great variations of life on Earth.

3. Darwin stated that species and breeds developed through the processes of natural selection and artificial selection or selective breeding.

4. The theory of evolution postulates that all organisms on Earth, both living and extinct, have a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool.

5. Biologists avoid organizing and analyzing of evolutionary relationships through various methods, including phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics.

6. The last universal common ancestor of all organisms appeared about 3.5 billion years ago.

7. Phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary diversity among groups of organisms, which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices.

8. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single " branch" on the " tree of life", a monophyletic group.

Task 12.

Develop the following points using the information and the vocabulary from the text.

1. Evolution is now used to explain....

2. Darwin theorized that....

3. Phylogenetics is the study of....

4. Phenetics is an attempt to....

5. Cladistics is a method of....

Task 13.

Answer the questions.

1. What is a central organizing concept in biology?

2. Who introduced " evolution" into the scientific lexicon?

3. What is the driving force of evolution in Darwin's opinion?

4. What is phylogeny?

5. How do biologists analyze evolutionary relationships?

6. What is the idea of the theory of evolution?

Writing

Task 14.

Make a summary of the text. See appendix for useful phrases.

Speaking

Task 15.

1. Make a plan for further retelling of the text:

a) entitle each paragraph according to the information it contains, making key points

b) write out key phrases from every paragraph

c) pay attention to the linking words which may be helpful for retelling

2. Retell the text.

Task 16.

Offer your opinion.

1. How can you explain the process of evolution in your own words?

2. Do you agree with evolution in the picture? If continue, what is the next step?