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Earliest Germ. alphabets.
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Through the history of their development GLs used 3 diff. alphabets, which partly succeeded each other in time.
Runic alphabet. Letters – runes. It is supposed that the runic ABC is based on the Latin or some other Italic alphabet, close to Latin in writing. 2-3 AD on the banks of the Rhine or the Danuble where Germanic tribes could come into contact with Roman culture. Since the Runic ABC was used by diff. Germanic tribes (Goths, A-Saxons, Scandinavians) it was adapted to the needs of each of these lang’s.
Ulphila. Ulphila’s Gothic ABC - 4th century. It is based on the Greek ABC but has some Latin and Runic letters. This is the ABC of Ulphila’s gothic translation of the Bible. But in modern editions of Goth text a Latin transcription of the Gothic ABC is used.
Latin alphabet. It began to be used when a new technique of writing was introduced. That is spreading of color, paint on a surface instead of cutting and engraving the letters.
Introduction of the Latin ABC was stimulated by the spread of Christianity, as Christian religious texts were written in Latin. The Latin ABC was also modified to the peculiar needs of the separate GLs.
10. Gradation or Ablaut in Germ. lang’s.
Vowel gradations was inherited by GLs from ancient IE family of languages. 2 kinds of gradation: qualitative & quantative
Qualitative gradation. Different vowels appear alternatively in various forms of one and the same word.
In IE /e/ and /o/, /o/ - /-/ везу – вёз
In GL /i/ and /a/, беру – брал, Goth hilpan – halp (preterit sg), OE bindan – bå nd (preterit sg)
Quantitative gradation is represented by the alternation of a short vowel with the corresponding long one and also alternation of a short vowel with the zero of the vowel
беру – брать OE findan P2 fnden ® fundan
The origin of gradation has been a matter of discussion for more than a 100 years. The prevailing theory is that it might be caused by different stressed conditions.
- the full stress brings the high degree /o/
- the weakened stress caused the medium degree /e/
- the unstressed position results in the zero of a vowel
Of all spheres of its application in GLs vowel gradation was used most constantly in deriving grammatical forms of strong verbs.
11. Prehistoric & Celtic Britain.
1st – Paleolithic men, Rough stone age. Weapons of stone and bone, Lived in caves.
2nd – Neolithic men. Polished stone age. Well-shaped stone weapons & implements. Lived in artificial buildings & raised crops. Kept domestic animals, knew how to weave cloths.
3rd – Bronze age.
4th – presumably Iberians. Native inhabitants. Most slaved when Celts attacked. Some driven to Wales & some moved with the Celts.
5th – Celts. Written history at the middle of the century, Caesar attacked. Described local population. Defeated in several fightings, driven to Wales & Scotland.
6th-3rd cent. BC a people called Celts spread across Europe. Many Celtic tribes, some invaded Britain. Picts & Scotts penetrated North, settled in Ireland. Scotland after Scotts.