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Developing an understanding of blended learning






A Personal Journey Across Africa and the Middle East

Michelle Selinger

T

he past four years have been the most formative of my life. I have a teach­ing background first as a secondary mathematics and economics teacher, then as a teacher educator working in distance education at the U.K. Open University, and then in a traditional university setting at the University of Warwick, where I also directed a research center for new technologies in educa­tion. At both institutions, I pioneered blended learning situations, through which I came to an understanding of how online communities could enhance and support learning. I discovered different needs dependent on the location of stu­dents and their proximity to tutors and peers (Selinger, 1998).

In this chapter, I document three further learning experiences that have developed my understanding of blended learning and the factors that can ensure successful implementation. I start by describing a plan to implement a blended learning solution in Rwanda, where the infrastructure is only just now being installed. Next, I describe the insights I gained from evaluating the Cisco Networking Academy Program in eleven countries. Finally, I discuss the devel­opment of a blended learning solution to teach mathematics in grades 1 to 12 in Jordan. In each situation, the extent of the blend of traditional instruction with e-learning comes from the availability of technology, which is relatively scarce in Rwanda and Jordan; from the focus on either the teacher (Rwanda and Jordan) or the student (the Cisco Networking Academy Program); and from the nature of


Developing an Understanding of Blended Learning



the course being studied (practical or theoretical). In each context, pedagogical models and cultural norms all have a part to play.

Technology for Teacher Training in Rwanda

This story begins in May 2000, when I was still training teachers and undertak­ing research in information and communication technologies (ICT) and educa­tion at the University of Warwick. At that time, I was invited by Cisco to move away from my closeted existence as a British academic and forgo my upcoming study leave to exploit my experience of using technology as a teacher, a teacher trainer, and a researcher to help solve the crisis in education in sub-Saharan Africa. This is not as pompous as perhaps it sounds. Prime Minster Tony Blair had asked Cisco Systems CEO John Chambers to support one of his millennium initiatives, which was to find a way to use technology to train teachers in developing coun­tries, with a focus on sub-Saharan Africa. In effect, this initiative directly addressed one possible solution to meeting the Education for All agenda set in Jomtiem, Thailand, in 1999, by the World Economic Forum.

I felt inadequate to cope with this daunting task, but I was delighted to have been asked and agreed to take up the challenge. I then set about researching every­thing I could about sub-Saharan Africa. The post was to be based in the U.K. Department for International Development (DFID). I spent the first two weeks based at DFID simply listening. I was new to development, although it had been a topic that had fascinated me when I studied in my undergraduate degree in eco­nomics many years earlier. The team, which became known as Imfundo: Part­nership for IT in Education, was composed of people with a diverse range of experiences. We were led by Blair's economic adviser, Owen Bader, who had worked in sub-Sahara Africa while at the Treasury. In addition, there was a project officer from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, a project assistant in train­ing at the DFID, plus two other secondees from industry—one from Marconi with wireless technology expertise and the other an ex-teacher from Virgin One Account who had business development experience. We were briefed and advised by a range of consultants who had worked in the field for many years, although few were ex­perienced with using technology to enhance education in a developing country.

The next eight months involved meetings and workshops with stakeholders in Rwanda, Gambia, and South Africa. The extent of poverty and lack of tech­nology infrastructure, particularly in Rwanda, but also in parts of Gambia and South Africa, opened my eyes in a way that only firsthand experience can. The same bandwidth requirements for Internet-based solutions implemented in



The Handbook of Blended Learning


the North, and, most notably, in the United States, Scandinavia, and the United Kingdom, were totally out of the question. The University of Butare in Rwanda, for example, had a 256 MB downlink and 128 MB uplink for the whole univer­sity via a satellite system known as a V-Sat, certainly not enough to support any intensive e-learning program. To make matters worse, dial-up connections were not possible since extremely few people we worked with had telephone land lines. And if they did have a telephone, the cost of Internet connectivity was more than twenty times the cost in the United Kingdom in real terms, which was unafford-able to most of the population.

Many developing and least developed countries have large numbers of un­trained and poorly qualified teachers. Rwanda is one of these. After the war in 1994, the shortfall of teachers in Rwanda was addressed by the recruitment of un­qualified teachers, 70 percent of whom had no more than secondary education themselves; a few had not even completed that. An emergency short training pro­gram of five days on teaching methodologies had been mounted, but this mea­sure was less than sufficient for teachers to gain the appropriate skills. However, it was all that could be done at a time when the priority was to rehabilitate and refurbish schools so that children could return to school with sufficient teachers to teach them. Teachers could not be taken out of school in large numbers for the extensive training that was needed.

In reality, this should have been, at the very least, a three-year, full-time train­ing program and equivalent to a preservice program in both subject knowledge and pedagogy. However, removing teachers from the classroom for this length of time was and still is unworkable in Rwanda. Teacher training institutions in that country have neither the physical capacity nor the human resources to train such large numbers. It seemed that distance education was the only feasible alternative, whereby teachers would receive valuable training while still teach­ing. The benefits would be to keep them in classrooms while undergoing train­ing so school attendance targets could be maintained. In addition, it would allow teachers to put new ideas into practice, thereby directly integrating theory and practice.

In Rwanda, the possibility of a blended learning solution linking teachers elec­tronically with the Kigali Institute of Education had also been explored. This solution would not necessarily be available directly to students but would support the tutors who were to be placed in each regional center and recruited from the current teaching force. However, these teachers would not be specialists in all sub­jects. Furthermore, as the distance learning materials would teach subject knowl­edge as well as pedagogy, it was anticipated that there would be questions from teachers that tutors would not be able to answer. At the very least, e-mail could provide a valuable resource for the tutor to relay questions to experts in the Kigali


Developing an Understanding of Blended Learning



Institute of Education. (I believe that even simple e-mail capability has not yet been established.)

In terms of curriculum materials, support was enlisted from those involved in curriculum development in the Shoma project based in South Africa since the cul­tural relevance was much closer to the Rwandan situation than similar programs from the North. Shoma had produced a mathematics education package for pri­mary and secondary teachers funded by the satellite and media company, MultiChoice. It was a blended learning program based on a three-stage model that made use of a mix of satellite broadcast TV with interactive Internet-based materials to train teachers. The teachers were released to attend Shoma sessions at a local teachers' center for a half-day a week. On average, they spent one-third of their time watching and discussing a satellite broadcast video, one-third work­ing on related interactive Internet-based materials cached locally that had been streamed overnight via satellite to the center, and the final third was a plan­ning session for their classes the following week. It was envisaged that a version of Shoma could be developed for Rwanda with the Kigali Institute of Educa­tion to supplement the distance learning materials being developed by consultants funded by the World Bank.

From Academic to Industry Education Adviser at Cisco

My second assignment ended before the program in Rwanda could be initiated fully. However, the ideas and development plans were handed over to an incoming team. My learning during that time was immense; not only did I come to understand satel­lite and wireless technology better, but it also started me on a journey that later was to show me that a solution in one country imposed on another can be problematic and irrelevant if the culture and pedagogical models of the recipient country are not taken into account. Technology imposition can also be a threat and can often be an inappropriate solution (Selinger & Gibson, 2004). Soon I realized that to implement technologically based learning solutions, all three considerations— technology, pedagogy, and culture—needed to be taken into account when work­ing with developing countries or, indeed, emerging and developed countries. Blended learning appears, however, to be a model in which the opportunities for customization occur with local teachers making the adaptations (Selinger, 2004b). The next stage of my journey was to leave academia entirely to pursue a ca­reer as an education adviser in the IT industry. This was a whole new world with a completely new language and culture to which I had to make personal adaptations. There were times when the thought of being a secondary mathe­matics teacher again, teaching the worst group I had ever taught on a wet Friday



The Handbook of Blended Learning


afternoon, seemed like heaven. However, that sentiment was only fleeting, and the opportunity to be at the cutting edge of technology while continuing to undertake research was enticing and stimulating.

I found myself positioned as an " e-learning expert" when really my back­ground in e-learning had mainly been in the use of online communities, partic­ularly with beginning teachers at the U.K. Open University (Selinger, 1997, 1998). and, more recently, in the use of e-learning materials in a blended learning envi­ronment with teachers in training while at the University of Warwick. In actual­ity, both experiences had little to do with the type of corporate e-learning that Cisco was engaged in. Nevertheless, I began to draw many parallels between e-learning in industry and e-learning in academia. It was interesting to come to understand how industry developed e-learning and how a company like Cisco used a system where a common application was piloted and then deployed across the company rather than each business unit using its own preferred applica­tions. The approach at Cisco was unlike academia, where it seemed that every faculty member who was engaging in e-learning was using a different system— although in more recent years, this has begun to change as universities have licensed large virtual learning environments and managed learning environments (MLE), such as Blackboard and WebCT, which are then deployed across the entire campus and replace proprietary systems.

Blended Learning Instead of E-Learning

What intrigued me at Cisco was the fact that not all learning was e-learning; it was actually blended learning. Increasingly, learners were offered choices about how they were to learn. Many courses were offered as Web-based training or in­structor-led training or with a blend of learning offerings so that learners could choose the mode that met their learning preference or work styles. Support com­munities were set up so that Frequently Asked Questions could be developed and each application used for productivity or for learning had a set of trou­bleshooting instructions as well as a 24/7 help desk facility. All possible new ap­plications were piloted with a small group before being deployed across a theater or across the whole company. Each business function then selected the tools and applications that were most appropriate for its training needs. The range of tools used and available for use for e-learning—virtual classroom, IP telephony, video on demand, IP television broadcasts, simulations, and virtual lab facilities—was also impressive; I had never seen many of them used in an educational setting.

Increasing awareness of the functions and features of these tools combined with an understanding of how e-learning could in fact be a set of Web-based instructional materials with virtual community support, or the downloading of a


Developing an Understanding of Blended Learning



video-on-demand plus some discussions with colleagues or experts face-to-face, or perhaps some Web-based training with hands-on practical labs, led me to think about some of the educational uses these tools could be put to. I then started de­veloping ideas and strategies for education customers as well as talking about the e-learning practices at Cisco with more confidence.



jation of a Blended Learning Program

The team I am currently assigned to is the Cisco Networking Academy Program group. The program comprises a suite of Web-based content designed to teach aspects of the Internet and a range of other related skills in educational and other nonprofit settings through a public-private partnership arrangement (Cisco, 2004). Cisco provides fhe necessary Web-based materials free of charge, the MLE, and as­sessment and instructor support, and the institution provides the computers and teach­ing facilities, the lab kit (purchased at a substantial discount from Cisco), and the instructors to teach the course.

The courses are instructor led, in face-to-face settings, using the e-learning materials, and have a strong, practical hands-on element. Therefore, the courses represent a truly blended learning program where instructors teach students face-to-face, and students read the Web-based curriculum before or after an introduc­tion or explanation from their instructor, take quizzes online and off-line, and are assessed on both practical skills and theoretical knowledge and understanding through Web-based, electronically scored tests.

The system has a managed learning environment, which includes both stu­dent and instructor communities. Instructors are increasingly given ideas for teach­ing as well as opportunities and resources to share their best practices. In addition, good practice guides are provided. This environment supports a blended learning model wherein the role of the instructor is held in high regard and is increasingly recognized on a global level. As evidence of just how global it is, the academy pro­gram is now taught in 154 countries and has around half a million students world­wide, making it probably the largest blended learning program in the world.

In late 2001 and early 2002, my manager asked me to visit a range of acad­emies within the theater (that is, across Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, also known as EMEA) to examine and report on the development of the Cisco Networking Academy program in these areas. We wanted to take stock of the de­ployment of the academy program to date and explore the underlying issues in­fluencing successful implementation, particularly those relating to culture, pedagogy, and Internet access within the different countries in the region. At that time, the academy program was taught in 147 countries worldwide, and 65 per­cent of those countries fell within the EMEA region. Countries within EMEA


 



The Handbook of Blended Learning


have extremely diverse cultures and cover the whole spectrum of economic de­velopment, from the most developed to the least developed. As a result, this eval­uation provided a broad perspective of the academy program's acceptance over a range of economic, cultural, and pedagogical environments.

Data were gathered through a Web-based questionnaire available across EMEA in four languages. In addition, interviews were conducted with students and instructors in Cisco Networking Academies in eleven countries within the re­gion in order to gather more detailed profiles of students and instructors and to add a qualitative research focus. In terms of demographic data, students tended to have an older profile than in the United States, and instructors came from a wide range of backgrounds, often with industry experience and little teaching experience. This was particularly true for the one hundred or so instructors interviewed.

Pedagogical practices were examined in each of the countries visited, as was the subsequent impact on how the curriculum was taught. Several cultural dif­ferences were revealed, most notably in Scandinavia, where the responsibility for learning is given to students, and their teachers do not expect to have to repeat what they have taught. In these countries, students are taught from an early age that it is up to them to revisit a concept and be sure they have understood it. This is in sharp contrast to the plrilosophy of the Cisco Networking Academy program, developed in the United States, where the pedagogical model at the time of the evaluation was to summarize for students what had been taught, explain what was to be taught, and after teaching it, sum up what they should have learned. In both Sweden and Denmark, this model was seen as too repetitive, and they often told the students that they could leave out the summaries if they so chose. (See Selinger, 2004a, for more discussion on these and other cultural issues and findings.) Over­all, there were few significant differences between countries in the teaching ap­proaches used; however, the cost and speed of access to the Internet, reflecting the current state of technological developments in each country, and reactions to the online curriculum, varied tremendously.

The report (Selinger, 2002, pp. 2-3) concluded:

To ensure that the Academy program continues to succeed as it grows it is essential that instructors are made fully aware that they are the most important element to its success. It is their role to make the Academy program culturally and pedagogically relevant for their students.... Instructors have to ensure that students are prepared for work in their own country and will also need to make any adaptations to the presentation of the curriculum to ensure that students are comfortable in their normal learning environment. In this regard, recommendations regarding developments in instructor training are made


Developing an Understanding of Blended Learning



suggesting that more time is spent on developing a range of teaching strategies for both labs and theory. Decision makers within the institutions where Academies are based need to be made fully aware of the time instructors need for preparation for their Academy program training, and the time needed subsequently to ensure the effective management of their Academy.

" *> e Importance of Adapting to Cultural Needs

The evaluation work left little doubt that awareness of or attention to cultural and pedagogical norms has an impact on the success of a blended learning program. As we move toward globalized education, fueled by the increasing availability of the Internet and new tools to support content development and collaboration be­tween students wherever they are, blended learning will become increasingly important, as shown by the experiences of the Cisco Networking Academy pro­gram. Locally based tutors will become increasingly important as mediators between content and students.

The academy program is based on the development of vocational skills, which are international and where little cultural adaptation needs to be made to ensure that the content is relevant. Nevertheless, some situational adaptations will need to be made. The evaluation work served to highlight my awareness that both content and presentation have to be of relevance to the culture of the students; it cannot be assumed to be the same in any two countries. This proved to be a useful realization for my subsequent involvement in the Jordan Education Initiative.

Developing Jordanian Teachers Through Blended Learning

The latest blended learning program I have been involved in is the development of e-curricula for the Jordan Education Initiative (JEI; www.wef.org/jei). The JEI has enabled me to bring together my experience as a mathematics teacher, a math­ematics educator, and a researcher on both the impact of technology in educa­tion and the role of the teacher in any learning environment.

The JEI represents a unique opportunity to improve the lives of Jordanian citi­zens. Jordan was selected during an Extraordinary Meeting of the World Economic Forum in early 2003 because of the country's vision for the future of its education. Among Jordan's immediate priorities was the desire to build a knowledge-based econ­omy and help its citizens become entrepreneurs and participate in the ICT indus­try. It has already taken steps in that direction through its E-Readiness for the Knowledge Economy project.


 


 


 



The Handbook of Blended Learning


One hundred " Discovery Schools" have been selected to pHot the initiative in Jordan. They will serve as a test-bed of how ICT can enable new systems to be used and benefit schools and their students. Although focused on the advance­ment of learning in Jordan, the plan also provides the opportunity for the sus­tained development of the local IT industry through infrastructure expansion and various e-content development activities.

One aspect of JEI is the development of a set of e-curricula for which Cisco agreed to sponsor the first of these: the Maths e-Curriculum. This was an opportunity for me to come full circle from my background as a mathe­matics teacher and teacher-educator and to harness all the new skills I had developed over recent years. The objective of the Maths e-Curriculum project is to develop and deploy in grades K-12 interactive, Web-based, multimedia-rich mathematics materials in both Arabic and English. The Maths e-Curriculum is based on research from some of the best mathematics educa­tion practices worldwide and is premised on a modern pedagogical approach applying constructivist, collaborative learning aimed at high levels of mathe­matical knowledge, skills, and motivation. In particular, it seeks to strengthen students' skills in applying mathematics across a broad range of other sub­jects and situations, recognizing that such skills will be critical to Jordan's fu­ture in the knowledge economy.

The Maths e-Curriculum content supports and develops teachers as well as students through high-quality lesson plans, rich interactive media, and sophisti­cated electronic assessment and feedback. It is used by teachers in their daily lessons with students in the classroom (with the aid of portable computers and a data projector), in exercises carried out by students in groups in the classroom (with the aid of a few computers in the classroom), and also in periodic self-learning (with the aid of one-to-one computers in existing computer labs in the schools). It has been developed by various players includingjordanian mathematics teachers and supervisors; Rubicon, a Jordanian software company; Cisco; and Cisco Learn­ing Institute. The project consists of three elements:


Teacher professional development

Teacher presentation resources for classroom projection and whole class

teaching

Student activities


Ble Diss


Teachers are encouraged to engage in professional development shortly be­fore the lessons they have to teach. In such training, their own subject matter knowledge is tested and strengthened. In addition, their misconceptions are high­lighted, and sound pedagogical practices are discussed. This means that teachers




Developing an Understanding of Blended Learning

Developing an èïèèìèè»,

do not need to spend time away from the classroom in professional development courses. Instead, they undertake relevant and timely professional development on­line when needed. Some of the media items used to teach subject matter knowl­edge to teachers are the same ones used for the students as either e-learning items or whole-class resources. By engaging teachers in their own learning using the media they will later use with students, their understanding of the benefits is personalized, and they are more likely to use the media in their teaching.

Once teachers have completed the requisite professional development, they are shown a scope of work for the subject they are to teach. Teachers are presented with a series of lesson plans linked to media items, together with a set of sugges­tions of how they might engage a class or a group of students in a way that will encourage students to collaborate, discuss, and engage in the mathematical activity. Suggestions are also made for follow-up work either at or away from the computer; this might include teacher-mediated group work around a computer, self-learning activities for consolidation and practice in the maths lab, practical mathematics, or some other form of practice. The instructional elements are media rich and sometimes designed to encourage mathematical activities away from the computer. Issues of cultural relevance have been at least partly addressed by having the media and the lesson plans designed by Jordanians. Rubicon, the media de­velopment company, is a growing Jordanian firm based in Amman. To add to this relevance, the Ministry of Education has released around thirty teachers from their teaching to work in the Rubicon offices for twelve months, and their salaries are paid by Rubicon, through the funding that they have received to develop the program. These individuals receive pedagogical support from people like me and other educators working for the Cisco Learning Institute.

Through development of the e-curriculum, it is hoped that the consequent longer-term benefit is a contribution to Jordan's economic development by equip-pingjordanian students with a higher level of mathematics knowledge and skills, as well as an ability to apply knowledge as needed in a knowledge economy. The plan is for the curriculum to be made available to other countries and in a format whereby it can be fairly easily customized for the curriculum and culture of other countries.

Blending Can Remove the Technology Dissonance in E-Learning

All the evidence from the three initiatives I have worked on—the Rwanda teacher training initiative, the evaluation of the Cisco Networking Academy Program, and the Jordan Maths e-Curriculum—has led me to believe that how­ever many educational resources are made available on the Web and however



The Handbook of Blended Learning


much animation and simulation is employed in whatever new and engaging ways, students still need support and scaffolding for their learning. I have learned that when people work together, whatever the resources and the level of detail, the classroom situation provides a focal point to channel students' thinking and help them focus on the subject they are studying. The classroom provides direction and rigor, and the teacher acts as the orchestrator of learn­ing. The teacher directs the activities, helps students overcome hurdles, picks them up when they stumble, and encourages and helps them to develop the skills of collaboration and cooperation with others, as well as many valued crit­ical thinking and problem-solving skills.

How a course is blended is dependent on a number of factors, several of them described in this chapter. In areas where teachers are lacking in skills, a blended learning solution can be designed for them as learners. A blended learning model might also be used directly in their own classroom to scaffold their mastery of new teaching skills, as in the Maths e-Curriculum in Jordan. If we are to develop blended learning solutions that are truly effective, then we have to consider the audience for the content. Is it for teachers or for students? Do the Web-based resources and approaches taken meet cultural norms and pedagogical practices? Is there the necessary Internet access readily available and at an affordable rate? Do users know how to make the most effective uses of it?

Clearly, the globalization of learning has significant repercussions on learn­ers. E-learning materials based on widely differing pedagogical models can now be created for and rapidly distributed to students in different cultures. However, the imposition of many of these technology solutions may be inappropriate or perhaps may need modification by local instructors, as demonstrated in the con­text of the Cisco Networking Academy Program. Ian Gibson and I have termed this " technology disssonance" (Selinger & Gibson, 2004).

In effect, what most people are calling e-learning is in actuality blended learning. Without teachers to act as cultural and pedagogical mediators, e-learn­ing will not be successful. In any course, there needs to be a face-to-face com­ponent with local facilitation. Without blended learning, it may be difficult to overcome technology dissonance in e-learning materials. Sometimes this blended learning will occur when local instructors make global e-learning materials relevant and use localized methods for teaching that material. At other times, the oral culture, common to developing countries, will also necessitate a blended learning approach whereby e-learning materials are made available to learn­ers who are used to a storytelling teaching environment. And so ends this story— for now.


3lended Learning


Developing an


Understanding of Blended Learning



References

Cisco. (2004). Academy connection. San Jose: Cisco. Retrieved August 9, 2004, from cisco.neta-

cad.net/public/index.html.

Selinger, M. (1997). Learning to teach at a distance: Exploring the roles of electronic com­munication. In D. Passey & B. Samways (Eds.), Information technology: Supporting change through teacher education. New York: Chapman Hall.

Selinger, M. (1998). Forming a critical community through telematics. Computers in Education,

30(1/2), 23^30. Selinger, M. (2002). The Cisco Networking Academy program evaluation in Europe, the Middle East and Africa: Executive summary. London: Cisco. Retrieved August 9, 2004, from www.cisco.com/edu/emea/docs/exec_summary.doc. Selinger, M. (2004a). Cultural and pedagogical implications of a global elearning pro­gramme. Cambridge Journal of Education, 34(2), 213—229. Selinger, M. (2004b). The role of local instructors in making global elearning programmes culturally and pedagogically relevant. In A. Brown & N. Davis (Eds.), World Yearbook 2004 Digital technologies, communities and education. London: Kogan Page. Selinger, M., & Gibson, I. (2004, June). Cultural relevance and technology use: Ensuring the transformational power of learning technologies in culturally defined learning eEnviron-ments. In Proceedings of EdMedia 2004 Conference. Lugano, Switzerland.




CHAPTER THIRTY-TWO


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