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Ways of Expressing Morphological Categories of the English and Ukrainian Verb
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The finite verb in the contrasted languages has six common morphological categories which are realised partly with the help of synthetic means (inflexions) and partly through different analytical means. Thus, the categories of person and number are realised in both contrasted languages synthetically, whereas the category of tense is realised both synthetically and analytically; the category of aspect is realised in English synthetically or analytically (continuous) but only synthetically in Ukrainian; the category of voice is realised only analytically in English but it may be realised synthetically and analytically in Ukrainian. Similarly with the category of mood, which is realised in both languages synthetically and analytically.
An illustrative presentation of these ways of realisation of all above-named morphological categories is given in Table 19 below.
Table 19
| Morphological category | Means of Realisation in the Contrasted Languages | |
| In English | In Ukrainian | |
| Person | I know. He knows. She is. We are. | Я знаю. Він/вона знає. Воно знає. Ми знаємо. Ви знаєте. Вони знають. |
| Number | He reads. They read good books. | Він читає. Вони читають книжки. |
| Tenses (present, past, future) 1. Absolute use of tenses | I work. He works. I worked. He will work. He said she had been seen in London. They asked if 1 could translate that passage into Japanese. | Я працюю. Я працював. Він читає. Він читав. Він читатиме. Він буде читати весь свій вік. Він прокинувся був, а потім знову заснув. |
| 2. Relative use of tenses [47, 144 — 146 | / when he comes she will ask — when he came/had come \ when he will come | / Де він мешкає тепер я запитаю — Де він мешкав \ Де він мешкатиме потім |
| Aspect (common, continuous, perfect) | He works. He is working (common/ continuous). He will work. He will be working (future). He has worked (perfect). | Він читав. Він прочитав це. Вона зараз тренується. Дощ пройшов. (недоконаний — доконаний вид) |
| Voice (active -passive) | He reads much. The house is/was built. The house is being built. It will be/will have been built. | Хату ставлять. Хата збудована/ була, буде збудована. Хід зроблено. Школу відкрито/ буде відкрито. |
| Mood | Indicative: We love our parents. Will he come? He has taken the exam. Imperative: Don't speak so loud! Let me sing you. Let us sing you smth. Subjunctive: Come what may! If she had come, he would have met her. Had 1 been there, I would have helped him. | Ми любимо своїх батьків. Чи прийдете ви взавтра? Він склав іспит. Не розмовляйте так голосно! Сядьте. Нум я вам заспіваю! Будь, що буде! Було б краще мабуть піти. Якби він був прийшов, він був би зустрівся з нею. |
The tabulated examples above testify to the existence of both isomorphic and allomorphic features in the nomenclature and means of expressing some morphological categories of the verb in the contrasted languages.
Generally common, with the exception of the continuous aspect, which is not available in Ukrainian, is the nomenclature and nature of the exist-
ing morphological categories of the verb. Absolute isomorphism is also observed in the means of realisation of the following morphological categories in the contrasted languages:
1. Person and number (with the help of synthetic means, i. e. forms of words and their inflexions. Cf. He is - they are, I was - they were. She works - the works. Я пишу - ви пишете. Я писав — ми писали.
2. The imperative mood forms with no reference to a definite person, as in the following sentences: Stop talking! Sit still! Let us sing. He розмовляти! Сидіти тихо! Нумо заспіваємо. Нум я вам розповім.
3. The affirmative and some interrogative forms of the Indefinite group of tenses and of the pluperfect (давноминулий) tense: I work. I worked. I shall work. He had left before I arrived. Я працюю. Я працював. Я буду працювати. Він якось заходив був, але мене тоді не застав на роботі.
4. Isomorphism also exists a) in the correlation of the time of action in the matrix close with the time of the expressed action in the subordi nate clause: He says she lives in Kyiv. He said she lived in Kyiv. He will say she will live in Kyiv. Or: she will say that she lived in Kyiv or she thought that she came/would come. Or: 1 thought she had come. Similarly in Ukrainian: Він каже, що вона прийшла; він скаже, що вона прийде/що вона вже приходила; він казав, що вона приходила/ приходила була; b) Isomorphism is also observed in the existence of tenses not correlating with the time of actions expressed in the matrix/ main clause, eg: He -will say that he knows/ knew, had known it. Він скаже, що вона пришила (приходила) приходила була; с) Iso morphism is likewise observed in the existence of some identical forms expressing those same subjunctive mood meanings referring to present or future or to some past action/event. For example:
In English
If I knew that before, I would
come.
If I had known that before, I
would have come.
Were she at home then, she
would come.
Had I known that before, I would
have come.
In Ukrainian Якби я знав це раніше, я б прийшов.
Якби я був знав це раніше, я був би
прийшов.
Була б вона в той час удома, вона
прийшла б.
Знав би я був це раніше, я був би
прийшов._____________________
d) Isomorphism is also observed in both languages in the existence of analytical passive voice forms in the past and Future Indefinite tense: He was invited. She will/will not be invited. Він був запрошений. Вона буде/не буде запрошена.
Besides, allomorphic features find their expression in the ways of realisation of some morphological categories in English and Ukrainian. These allomorphic ways are observed in the following:
1. In the use of analytical paradigms in English to express tense, aspect and voice forms, as well as in negative/interrogative forms like: He is read ing now. Is he reading now? Does/did he speak English? The passage is being translated The article will have been translated by then, etc.
2. In the absence in Ukrainian of the continuous aspect, whose durative meaning can be expressed by the transitive verb stems with the suffixes - сь, -ся and a corresponding adverb/adverbial phrase identifying the mo ment/period of action. Cf. Петренко зараз/ще, вже, давно/будується. Школа ще (тоді) будувалась/будуватиметься.
3. Allomorphism exists in the expression of the category of person in Ukrainian imperative mood forms which is alien to English. For example: Пиши! (Ти пиши!) Пишіть! (Ви пишіть!) Іди! Будьмо/ будьте здорові! Встань! Встаньте! Не вір! Не вірте!
Analytical imperative mood forms may have corresponding personal pronouns in English with the verb let (Let me say. Let him/us say. Let them come/say it). The corresponding Ukrainian forms have the particles нум or нумо (for singular or plural forms respectively) and also person and number inflexions of the notional verb. Cf. Нум я запитаю. Нумо заспівайте! Нумо до праці, брати! (Б. Грінченко)
4. Isomorphism and allomorphism is observed in the expression of the passive voice in English and Ukrainian. 1) Isomorphic is the analytical way of expression of this morphological category, i.e. with the help of the aux iliary verb to be + past participle: Лист був написаний. Лист буде написаний. Alongside of this participial predicative forms in -но, -то are used: Лист буде написано. Все, зрештою, було забуто. Питання про ліквідацію боргів заводом з порядку денного не було знято. 2) Allomorphic are forms of expressing the passive voice synthetically that are observed in Ukrainian. These forms are realised a) by means of inflex ions of the past participle: Стаття написана. Текст перекладений. Жито
скошене. Фрески відновлені. b) With the help of the postfixes -сь, -ся added to the non-perfective verbs in the indicative mood: Хата будується/ будувалась. Місток зводиться. Проект тільки готувавсь, с) With the help of the mentioned predicative participles in -но, -то: Музей зачинено. Питання розв'язано. Ворога розбито. Нічого не забуто. A peculiar feature of passive constructions in English is their much more frequent use than in Ukrainian. This is accounted for a) the use of some English irregular verbs as regular: The office is run by Mr. Brown. The dog was walked by Ann; b) the use of any of the two direct objects as subjects of the sentence in the passive voice: Mother forgave Dora her drawbacks; Dora was forgiven her drawbacks... Dora's drawbacks were forgiven by her mother; c) the use of prepositional objects as subjects in the passive voice: He was taken care of, d) the use of the past participle as a nominal part of the predicate: He was seated, pen in hand, at the table... (Cronin). " Is he generally liked? " (Bronte).
Typology of the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb (Verbals)
The nomenclature of verbals in the contrasted languages includes some common/isomorphic and some divergent/allomorphic forms. Common are the infinitive and the two participles; divergent are the gerund in English and the diyepryslivnyk in Ukrainian. Far from identical are the morphological categories pertaining to these non-finite forms of the verb. Thus, verbals from transitive verbs have the following categorial distinctions in these two contrasted languages (Table 20).
Table 20 English versus Ukrainian Verbals
| Verbal | English | Ukrainian |
| Infinitive | active: to ask; to understand passive: to be asked; to be understood | активний: запитувати пасивний: бути запитаним |
| Non-progressive | active: to ask somebody perfect: to have asked somebody passive: to have been asked by smb. | недоконаного виду: лить, цвісти, їсти; доконаного виду: збити, зацвісти, відцвісти, поспати, попоїсти |
| Progressive infinitive | active: to be asking somebody perfect: to have been asking somebody | not available not available |
Продовження табл. 19
| Verbal | English | Ukrainian |
| Gerund | active: asking passive: being asked active perfect: having asked passive perfect: having been asked | Gerund - not available Дієприслівник активний теперішнього часу: йдучи, маючи, знаючи, очікуючи активніш минулого часу: йшовши, мавши, знавши, за/почекавши |
| Participle I | Present active: asking passive: being asked Perfect active: having asked Perfect passive: having been asked | Дієприкметник активний теперішнього часу: читаючий, читаюча, читаюче, мигаючий, мигаюча, мигаюче активний минулого часу: перемігший, здолавший, усміхнений |
| Participle II | Passive (only past): asked, made, decided, seen, purchased, etc. | пасивний минулого часу: запрошений, пройдений, здійснений |
The tabulated forms of verbals in both languages above testify to the existence of allomorphisms both in their structural forms and in their categorical meanings. Thus, the English infinitive is always distinguished by its identifier " to" (to come, to be asked, to be doing), whereas the Ukrainian infinitive is characterised by the suffixes -ти, -ть, -тись, -тися. The suffix -ти is always added to the stem ending in a consonant (бігти, везти, сісти), and the suffix -ть, like the suffix -тися/ -тись, may be added to a stem ending either in a vowel or in a consonant (носити/ носить, носитися/носитись; їхати/їхать, сіяти/сіять).
Specifically Ukrainian, as was pointed out, is the diminutive infinitive formed by combined suffixes: спатки, спатоньки, спатусі, спатусеньки, купці, купоньки, сістоньки, їстоньки.
Allomorphism is observed in the categorical meanings of the infinitive and the participle. The infinitive in Ukrainian has no perfect (perfective) passive form, no continuous aspect form, no perfect active and perfect passive forms of the Participle that are pertained to present-day English. Cf. to have slept, to be sleeping, to have been seen; having been asked/having asked, etc.
The gerund and the diyepryslivnyk present allomorphic verbals in English and Ukrainian respectively. As a result, they can not be contrasted in any way. The gerund has both verbal and noun characteristics, the former being those of tense and voice (asking — being asked, having
asked — having been asked) and the ability of taking an objective complement: I like reading books, as well as the ability of being modified by an adverb: Going quickly never tiers him. The noun characteristics of the gerund find their expression in its functions in the sentence as subject, object, the predicative part, the attribute, and as an adverbial modifier of manner. For example, as subject and predicative: Deciding is acting. (Saying). As object: He won't stand beating. As an attribute: She found an opportunity of taking him away. As adverbial modifiers: The Mouse shook its head impatiently without opening its eyes. (L. Carroll) The rain poured down without ceasing. (Maugham) On arriving at the garden entrance, he stopped to look at the view. (Galsworthy) The gerund can also be a complex subject, a complex object and other parts of the sentence (cf. His being ill is unknown to me. That was his being ill that spoiled everything. I know nothing of his being ill), etc.
The Ukrainian diyepryslivnyk, whether active or passive or non-perfective present and perfective past, remains an indeclinable verbal form. The diyepryslivnyk may be formed, respectively, from the present stem of the verb or from the infinitive of both the transitive and intransitive verbs. The imperfective (present) diyepryslivnyk is formed from the present stem of the verb belonging to the first verbal declension by adding the suffix -учи/-ючи. Cf. нес/уть + -учи: несучи; працю/ють + -ючи — працюючи. Cf. Слухаючи їх жартівливу розмову, уверне слівце й од себе. (Нечуй-Левицький)
Perfective (past) diyepryslivnyk is formed from the infinitival stems with the help of the suffix -ши, added to the stem that ends in a consonant, or the suffix -вши that is added to the stem of perfective and non-perfective verbs which end in a consonant: донес/ти + -ши — донісши; привез/ти/ + -ши — привізши and similarlу~знавши, пивши, ївши, etc. When the infinitival stem ends in a vowel, the suffix -вши is added: здола/ти/ + -вши — здолавши; побачи/ти/ + -вши — побачивши. Cf. Устромивши люльку в рот і закривши очі, він ще потроху пахкав. (Панас Мирний)
Perfective and imperfective diyepryslivnyks may also be formed from verbs having the postfix [Грищенко 2002: 387] -ся/-сь: Хвилюючись, все ще не опам'ятавшись, солдат розповідав про себе. (Гончар) Similarly in турбуючись, милуючись, дивуючись, etc.
The semantic and functional equivalents to the imperfective (present) and perfective (past) diyepryslivnyks in English are indefinite or perfect participles (both active and passive) performing the functions of the adverbial modifiers of time: "...while working so hard he needed sea air" (Galsworthy); or attending circumstances: Clara sat in the cool parlour reading. (Lawrence); the adverbial modifiers of cause: " Being tired he thought of sleep." (J. K. Jerome); and that of result: ...having seen all that was to be seen he came out. (Galsworthy), etc.
The functions of the infinitive and the participles in the sentence generally coincide in both languages, though Ukrainian participles have gender, number and case distinctions, which are lost by their English corresponding equivalent verbals. Cf. gender and number categories: працюючий, працююча, працююче (колесо); number and case: працюючого, працюючому, працюючим; працююча, працюючої; працюючі, працюючих, працюючим, працюючими, etc.
Allomorphic for the Ukrainian language are some syntactic functions pertained to English participles and infinitives which may form with some classes of verbs (for example, those of the physical and mental perceptions) complex parts of the sentence. These parts of the sentence are completely alien to Ukrainian, cf: He was seen to go/going home. We heard him sing/singing. He wants me to be reading. The lesson (being) over, the students went to the reading-hall. Each of these secondary predication complexes, with the only exception of the for-to-infinitive construction, has a subordinate clause for its equivalent in Ukrainian: Бачили, як він ішов/коли він ішов додому. Ми чули, як він співає/ співав. Після того/оскільки заняття закінчилося, студенти пішли до читальної зали.