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Typological Characteristics of Particles
Particles in English and Ukrainian are unchangeable words specifying some component in a phrase or the whole phrase (a sentence/clause). Unlike conjunctions or prepositions, particles do not express any syntactic relations. Their function is in both languages to emphasise, restrict or make negative the meaning of the units they specify by giving some additional shade (emotional, evaluative, etc.) to their meaning/sense. Therefore some particles may perform a form-building function (cf. To be or not to be. Shakespeare) бути чи не бути. Besides, particles in both contrasted languages express an attitudinal relation to action, state or the whole message/or to reality, as well as to expressing the attitude of the speaker to the content of some message. Hence, the categorial meaning of a particle in both contrasted languages comes to influencing the content/sense expressed in the utterance. As to their morphological structure, particles in the contrasted languages may be: 1) Simple: all, else, even, just, too, yet, not, а, і/й, так, ну, не, ж, еге and others; 2) Derivative: alone, merely, scarcely, simply, нум, нумо, було, просто, все, воно, собі, та, те, це, оце, а, чи; 3) Compound: almost, also (невже, якраз). Isomorphic is the homonymy of many particles in English and Ukrainian with the following parts of speech: a) with adverbs: exactly, precisely, never, simply, still, просто, лиш, там, ще, вже; b) with adjectives (in English): even, right, just; c) with pronouns: all, either, все, воно, собі, те, то; d) with conjunctions (very few in English): but they are in Ukrainian (а, і, та, чи); е) with articles (in English only): the more, the better; the longer, the better. Quite common, although not always equally represented, are the semantic groups of particles in both contrasted languages. Namely: 1. Particles of emphatic precision (емфатичного уточнення): absolutely, exactly, precisely, right, точно, справді, просто, прямо and others. Eg:
b) to make a part of the sentence/a component of a word-group neg ative, eg: Not everyman's money. (Idiom) He кожному по кишені. " He is neither fish nor fowl." " Він триба, ні м'ясо. (Ні Богу (Salinger) свічка, ні чорту шпичка). c) to negate the preceding suggestion, eg: " What'd he cop, malaria? " " No". (F. Hardy). " У нього що - малярія? " - Hi. " I am careful". " Я ж уважний." " No, you are not." (Fitzgerald) " Hi, ти не уважний. " 6. Interrogative particles/запитальні частки: well, really, no, why, why not, га, ну, невже, хіба, та ну, що за, eg: "...This isn't the man". " No? " — Це не той чоловік — Ні? " However, I don't believe it". — Однак я не вірю цьому. " Why not? " " This is Slogle speaking..." — Чому б ні? Це справді говорить Слоґл. " Yes? ". (Fitzgerald) " It's not so very - Так? Це не так уже й страшно, terrible." " Well? " (Maugham) — Справді? / Так? 7. Connecting or linking particles/приєднувальні частки: also, too (тож, також/теж, до того ж, ще й), eg: " Не also takes off his hat and over- Він також скидає капелюха й coat." (В. Shaw) Soames, too, was пальто. silent. (Galsworthy) Сомз теж мовчав./Сомз також промовчав. The large number of particles in both languages and the diversity of their specifying capacity make it possible to single out some more discrete groups of these words. Among these the following are most represented in English and Ukrainian: a) quantitative (кількісні) particles: almost (almost everything), ap proximately (approximately the size) майже, приблизно, близько, мало не, трохи не, чи не, ледве не; b) emphasising or singling out particles (видільні частки): even that, only look/say, more intense, more than necessary. And in Ukrainian: навіть, тільки, лише, лиш, хоч, хоча б, аж, же/ж, все, собі, таки, eg: ...тільки в цьому котловані буяють рясні сади. Хоча б цієї столиці не минути... (Гончар) Сині, аж сизі. А серце... таки рветься до кращого життя... (Коцюбинський). A distinguishing feature of present-day Ukrainian is a more extensive use of particles in speech (especially of emphasising and modal particles). The latter constitute a large group including such particles as б, би, мов, мовби, бодай, хай, нехай, може, нум, нумо, etc. Cf.: A бодай вам весело було. (Кв.-Основ'яненко) Пройти б на старе бойовище. (В. Швець) Хай тільки-но зачеплять... (Трублаїні)...зморшки на чолі все глибшають у мене... (Сосюра) Це далеко? А це як міряти. Ukrainian has also a wide use of interrogative particles. Cf. Невже не можна ради дати серцю?.. (Павличко). Те дерево, що я садив, чи діждеться весни? (Рильський) Хіба є хто на світі крилатіший за людину? (О. Гончар) Це ти Шовкун? (Ibid.) As was already mentioned particles in both contrasted languages can perform not only form-building but also word-forming functions. Word-forming are the following English particles: else-, not-, no more-, -most (elsewhere, notwithstanding, forget-me-not, nothingness, moreover, almost, altogether, although, nothing, nowhere). Ukrainian has a considerably larger number of word-forming particles, eg: -будь, -небудь, казна-, хтозна-, -сь, аби-, де-, не-, ні-, би-, б-, -же-, -ж and others: хто-небудь, декуди, де-небудь, якийсь, мовби, ніби, начеб, щоб, ніколи, недбальство, ніде, ніщо, кознащо, немов, адже, отже, також, теж, ніж, etc. Form-building particles are used in English in the following functions: a) as an infinitival identifier: to ask, to be reading; b) as a representation specifier (he'll come if asked to); c) as a specifier of degree (the larger part, he's the quickest, more quickly); d) as a negator of a word (eg: cannot) or a phrase (not he, certainly not, no reading practice). Ukrainian form-building particles have a wider range of use. They may be part of a morphological paradigm (as in case of the particles хай, нехай, най-, що-, як-, -сь, би/б): Хай він жде біля криниці... (Малишко) ...нехай їдуть під шум. (Рильський) Якби були батько, мати, Та були б багаті, Було б кому взяти. (Шевченко)
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