Typological Features of the Adverbial Clauses

The main criteria on the basis of which the classification of all adverbial subordinate clauses is performed are common in the contrasted lan-

guages. These criteria include as obligatory the following characteristics of these clauses: a) their function; b) their semantics; c) partly their ways of connection with the principal clause as well as d) the structure of the sentence as a whole.

The functional classification of adverbial clauses in English and Ukrainian is established on the basis of their role in the sentence where it correlates with that of the corresponding adverbial modifiers. Accordingly, there are two common groups of adverbial clauses distinguished in the contrasted languages: 1) adverbial clauses expressing the adverbial relations proper (the adverbial clauses of place, time, condition, concession, purpose, cause and result); 2) adverbial clauses expressing the quality of relations or their quantity. These are the adverbial clauses of manner or attending circumstances and the adverbial clauses of measure and degree.

This typologically relevant classification also roughly corresponds to the quantitative representation of these groups of clauses in the contrasted languages.

Typological Features of the Adverbial Clauses of Place (місця)

The distinguishing semantic and functional characteristic features of each adverbial clause in English and Ukrainian are common. These clauses they define: a) place or direction of the action/state in the matrix clause; b) they are introduced in English by the adverbial connectors where to, where/from, where, whence, wherever, everywhere corresponding to Ukrainian adverbial connectors де, куди, звідки.

The adverbial clause of place may be located in English and Ukrainian both in preposition and in postposition to the matrix clause. Cf.

Where there is a will, there is a way. Де вони проходили, ніщо не

(Proverb) брязнуло, не тріснуло... (Гончар)

Lupins grew where the springs ran. Ти пішов лейтенантом, де тане

(O'Dell) далечінь... (Сосюра)

A peculiar feature of Ukrainian subordinate clauses of place is the obligatory use of relative adverbial connectors and the correlating with

them adverbs, when the predicate verb in the matrix clause express motion. As a result, these connectors form with the relative adverb regular semantic units like тут/там — де/куди, звідки; туди — с куди, звідки; звідти — де/куди, звідки; скрізь — де/куди, звідки. Cf. Скрізь, де серце людське б'ється, славте месха Pycтавелі (Рильський) Я й справді бо... злітав аж ген туди, звідкіль мені земле була — як на долоні. (Тичина) Параска похитнулася, глянула туди, куди ткнула Зінька рукою. (Мирний)

The correlating adverbs in such Ukrainian complex sentences peform a constructive syntactical function which is especially evident in clauses expressing arbitrary location: Cf. Де б не був, всюди почуває себе запеленгованим. (Гончар) І де не ступить кований каблук, там квіти гніву ясно багряніють. (Сосюра)

Isomorphic, however, is the structure of English complex sentence with the subordinate clauses introduced by the adverbial group " where there." Cf. Where there are geese, there's dirt. Where there are bees there will be honey. (Proverbs)

Typological Features of the Adverbial Clauses of Time (часу)

These temporal clauses in the contrasted languages perform the function of the temporal adverbial modifier of the action or state expressed іn the principal clause. Temporal adverbial clauses may be introduced іn English and Ukrainian by the following conjunctions or relative adverbs, adverbial phrases:

as, as soon as, before, after, till, як, як тільки, перед тим як, після

until, when, whenever, while, now після того як, доки/поки,

that, the time that, the day (that), тим часом, тоді як, наступного

the moment, next time, directly, im- дня, на тоді коли, відтоді як, від

mediately, etc. коли, щоразу, коли.

Every conjunction or relative adverb/adverbial phrase in complex sentences of both languages adds some shade of meaning to the temporal relation. Due to this, the complex sentences in English and Ukrainian may express the following meanings:

a) the time of action/state in the principal clause which is mostly indicated by the conjunctions/connectives as, as soon as, before, till, until, when, etc. corresponding to the Ukrainian як, коли, доки, поки, до того як, перед тим як, до того часу... доки/аж доки:

I'll talk to him as soon as I get break. (Hailey)

When the cat is away the mice will play. (Proverb)

Wouldn't you like a cup of hot chocolate before you go? (Salinger)

Я поговорю з ним, як тільки матиму перерву. Коли кота нема в хаті, миші бігають по столу.

Може б, випив чашку гарячого шоколаду/какао, перш ніж підеш?

b) the expressed meaning may indicate the temporal limits or the period of duration of the action or state in the matrix clause, which can be conveyed by the following conjunctions and adverbial connectors: till, until, since, ever since, etc. Or in Ukrainian: доки, поки, відколи, відтоді як, до того часу як, доти... доки, etc.:

We stayed there until night fell.

(O'Dell)

Never tell a thing to a woman

till it's done. (Priestley)

Ми просиділи там, доки (не) настала ніч.

Ніколи не розкривай жінці свій задум, доки ти не виконав його.

The temporal subordinate clauses expressing common relations in English and Ukrainian equivalents may occupy either the front position or the concluding position in the sentence:

When we reached the landing, all

the old women turned their heads...

(Greene)

You were sleeping when I left.

(Hemingway)

Коли ми підійшли до дверей, усі

старі жінки повернули в наш

бік голови...

Ти ще спав, коли я пішов з

дому.

Apart from a clearly temporal meaning these subclauses may sometimes bear some different additional implicit meanings. The latter may be observed in the complex sentences below where the connectors may be substituted, due to the inherent meaning of these clauses, for some other

conjunction. Cf. " I shall always come to you whenever (if?) I'm ill." (O'Dell) She made a little curtsy as (since?) she bowed. (Mitchell) Similar inherent meanings of condition and cause can be observed in the Ukrainian equivalents of these sentences too: " Я завжди приїжджатиму до тебе, коли тільки/якщо захворію". Вона висловила й своє вшанування, коли (оскільки) зробила реверанс.

English and Ukrainian temporal clauses may be joined by adverbial word-groups or adverbs which perform a joining function. The way of connection between such clauses then is close to asyndetic. Cf. " I get excited every time I see a piano." (Saroyan) Directly I had done it I knew I had made a mistake. (Hornby) Similarly in the Ukrainian complex sentences of the type: Ледве ключар відчиняє двері, в них вривається юрба відвідувачів. (Л. Українка) ...нехай тільки станеться кому з нашого села пригода — (Максим Гримач) головою ляже, а врятує. (М. Вовчок)

Typological Features of the Clauses of Manner/ Attendant Circumstances (способу дії)

The subordinate clauses of manner or attendant circumstances in each contrasted language give some qualitative characteristics of the action/state in the matrix clause. They are introduced in English by the conjunction as/as if or by the connective word " the way" having several corresponding conjunctions and correlatives in Ukrainian. The main of these are: мов, немов/немовби, неначе, ніби, нібито, начебто, що, щоб.

The adverbial clauses of manner or attendant circumstances split in English and Ukrainian into two main subgroups:

1) clauses that qualify the predicate of the matrix clause and consequently modify the clause as a whole. A specific feature of Ukrainian equivalents of such and other clauses is an often use of condensed or reduced to a one-member clause structure with an inherent comparative meaning and function, eg:

Mr. Tupman did as he was requested. Треба битися тут і стояти, як нале- (Dickens) жить чесним людям. (Яновський)

Their voices rose and fell as though їхні голоси то лунали, то завмирали,

they were singing together. (Green) ніби вони співали разом.

2) clauses of manner or attendant circumstances that refer to the adverbial modifier of the matrix clause have mostly an inherent comparative meaning which is an isomorphic feature of both contrasted languages. Cf.

He laughed joyfully as though а Він сміявся радісно, так. ніби

weight had been lifted from him. з його пліч зняли важкий тягар.

(Cusack)

Sometimes the Ukrainian equivalents of the clauses of manner may have a one-member structure or rather a condensed form, eg:

It followed inevitably upon the Після праці неминуче, мов/як

work, as the night follows a day. день після ночі, наступало

(London) розслаблення.

There may equally be a two-member clause of manner/attendant circumstances in Ukrainian, though in a transformed structure of the sentence only. Cf. Після праці неминуче, як день наступає після ночі, наступало розслаблення.

Typological Features of the Clauses of Comparison (порівняння)

This adverbial clause in English and Ukrainian may also characterise the action/event expressed by the predicate of the matrix clause or it may correlate, as in the sub-clauses of manner/attendant circumstances with a comparative degree adverb of the matrix clause.

Semantically common in both languages are conjunctions that introduce the sub-clauses of comparison. They are: as, like, as if, as though, than and conjunctions with the correlatives — as...as, so...as, as...as if, the more... the more, etc., which have corresponding connective equivalents in Ukrainian (мов, немов, ніж, так — як, так — мов, так — ніби, так-що, так-щоб, etc.):

As they sow, so let them reap. Як посієш/посієте, так і

(Proverb) пожнеш/пожнете.

...He'd sooner die than let me think...він скоріше помре, ніж пока-

he was after my money. (Maugham) же, що розраховує на мої гроші.

The identification of the clauses of comparison in the contrasted languages is sometimes not very easy. This is because the meaning of comparison may overlap the meaning of the manner of action/attendant circumstance expressed in the matrix clause. Cf.

She felt as gay and eager as if she Вона відчула себе такою весе-

were... playing her first small part. лою і життєрадісною, ніби грала...

(Maugham) вже свою першу маленьку роль.

The meaning of the comparative groups of words " as gay and eager as if..." clearly includes comparison as well as manner of the action/ feeling of the girl (as if she were playing). Due to this, many grammarians traditionally do not separate these two types of subordinate clauses treating them as one group (" clauses of comparison/or manner" or as " clauses of degree)" [16. 295; 39, 287].

Typological Features of the Clauses of Condition (умови)

Adverbial clauses of condition in English and Ukrainian are characterised by several isomorphic features which may be of semantic or structural nature. Thus, these clauses in both languages can express a real or unreal condition referring to present, past or future. Also common are the types of conditional relationships in English sentences and in their Ukrainian equivalents, and the time of the action/event expressed in their matrix and in subordinate clauses. The latter are introduced in English by the following conjunctions and connectives: if, unless, suppose/supposing, provided, in case, as though, on condition, etc. corresponding to Ukrainian якщо, якби, коли/б, аби, як, за умови якщо, etc.

Mostly the same (preposed or postposed) is the placement/position of conditional clauses in the equivalent English and Ukrainian complex sentences of this type. Cf.

You can die if you don't give up Ти помреш, якщо не кинеш випива-

drinking. (Hemingway) ти.

If you want to be an actor... Якщо ти хочеш сіпати артистом,

І can't stop you. (Maugham)...я не можу відраджувати тебе.

Apart from the conjunction if the conjunction unless often introduces the clauses of real condition (its Ukrainian equivalent is якщо):

...He (dog) would not go with me...він/собака ніколи не йшов за мною,

unless I urged him to. (O'Dell) якщо я його не кликав.

Unless my memory plays me а Якщо мені не зраджує пам'ять,

trick, his portrait... has already його фотографія вже

appeared in the Strand Magazine... публікувалася в журналі " Стренд".

Conditional clauses can also be introduced by the connectives " in case of" and " on condition that" (in Ukrainian " у випадку якщо" " за умови, якщо/коли"):

І also gathered herbs from the hill Я також назбирала трав на

above the spring in case I should горбку біля джерела на випа-

need them. (O'Dell) док, якщо в них буде потреба.

You can go swimming on condition Можеш іти купатися за умови,

that you don't go too far from the якщо не відпливатимеш далеко

river bank. (Hornby) від берега.

Note. Allomorphism is observed in the transposition of present tense form to express future in English sub-clauses of condition which is not so in Ukrainian where in both clauses the future tense is used, eg: " If you are decent with me, I'll work for you." (Gardner) Якщо ти будеш порядним зі мною, я працюватиму на тебе.

Of common structure and nature in both contrasted languages are also clauses of unreal condition referring to present, past and future and joined to the matrix clause asyndetically, eg:

" Had the house been merely what is " Був би це просто, як кажуть,

called a hermit house, you would покинутий будинок, ви б заліз-

have reached it..." (Christie) ли в нього по-іншому".

A specific feature of Ukrainian clauses of unreal condition is the use of the particles б, би, whereas in English a conditional meaning may be expressed by the phrase " but for": " But for your help we should not have finished in time." (Hornby). Cf. Якби/Коли б не твоя допомога...

Isomorphic in both languages is also the expression by conditional clauses (similar to some other clauses) together with some inherent accompanying adverbial meanings. The main of them in English and Ukrainian are the following three:

1. The temporal meaning (when the if -clause can be substituted for the when -clause):

I was not sure what I would do if Я не був певний у тому, що я ро- the Aleuts came. (O'Dell) бив би, якби/коли б з'явилися алеути.

Cf. I was not sure what I would do when the Aleuts came.

2. The suppositional and temporal meaning:

If she should come, I shall ask her В разі, якщо б/коли б вона

to wait. (Dreiser) пришила, я попрошу її зачекати.

The conjunction if in the sentence above may be equally substituted for the connective when with the same suppositional and conditional meanings: When she should come I shall ask her to wait.

3. A concessive accompanying meaning:

Miss O'Shanty had a way of ma- Міс О'Шенті вміла заглушити в

king you feel welcome even if you тобі протест, навіть якби тебе

came to be expelled. (Hughes) виключали з коледжу.

The conditional and concessive meanings in this sentence are inseparably interwoven. As a result, " even if" may be substituted for " even though " (cf. even though you came to be expelled — навіть хоч би тебе виключили з коледжу).

Isomorphic is also the use of tenses in the matrix and in the conditional clauses of the contrasted languages, eg:

But if they had been sent by my Але якби вони були послані мої-

people to take me away, then I ми людьми, щоб забрати мене,

should not hide. (O'Dell) тоді не слід би й ховатися.

Here the past subjunctive passive in the conditional clause and the present subjunctive active in the matrix clause have their absolute temporal (and semantic) equivalents in Ukrainian (" якби вони були послані", " й не слід би ховатися").

Typological Features of the Concessive Clauses (допусту)

As has been shown above, concessive clauses in English and Ukraini an are closely connected semantically and structurally with conditional clauses. These clauses, however, modify the matrix clause as a whole and not a part of it, as is the case with conditional clauses. Besides, the meaning expressed in the concessive clause may often be in contrast to that expressed in the matrix clause, eg: Though she did not know it, she had the feeling for him of proprietary right. (London) Therefore, „she І had the feeling for him"... despite the fact that " she did not know it". *

Of common semantic (and often even structural) nature are concessive conjunctions and connectives which express the respective meaning of the subordinate clauses. Accordingly there can be distinguished three groups of structurally and semantically common clauses conveying concessive meaning in English and Ukrainian. These are as follows:

1. Clauses of admitted concession (значення допусту) are joined to the matrix clause by the conjunctions though, although (хоча, хоч) in the initial and closing position in the sentence:

Though everyone was supposed to Хоч усе місто, здавалося, мало б

be out town, the grill-room was бути на курортах, ресторан був

well filled. (Maugham) напхом напханий

It was determined, although the salary Було вирішено, хоча ставка була

was small, that he must go. (Ibid.) низька, що він мусить згоджуватися.

It wasn't a subject for joking, Це не було темою для жартів,

though it had its humorous side. хоч вона й мала смішний

(J. K. Jerome) підтекст.

English concessive clauses introduced by compound pronouns and adverbs in -ever (whoever, whatever, whenever, etc.) express choice. The corresponding Ukrainian connectives always include the particle б/би:

Whatever race they were, they had Якої б раси вони не були, вони

had too much fun at our expense... дуже розважалися за наш рахунок

(Hughes) (на нашій кривді).

Wherever I went now..., I carried Куди б я тепер не йшов, я ніс

this weapon in a sling on my back. цю зброю на ремінці за плечима. (O'Dell)

2. Subordinate clauses of hypothetical concession are introduced by the same compound pronouns, adverbs and some other connectives. Their predicates either include modal verbs or have a strong implicit modal meaning. Consequently, the predicates in such sub-clauses may easily be substituted for a modal verbal predicate. For example:

However dull the women were, he ]=[However dull the women might be] he was sitting next to her... (he was sitting next to her. Maugham)

The Ukrainian equivalent of this sub-clause has the same implicit modal meaning: Хоч би якими нудними були ці жінки (хай би якими нудними могли бути ці жінки), він залишався сидіти поруч з нею.

3. Concessive clauses of adversative or disjunctive meaning in En glish and Ukrainian can be introduced both syndetically and asyndetically:

Wait as he did. however, Carry did Скільки він не чекав, однак, Керрі

not come. (Dreiser) не прийшла.

No matter what passes, I must gut Що б там не сталося, (а) я мусив

the dolphin. (Hemingway) почистити вловлень макарень.

The adversative or disjunctive meaning can be expressed implicitly in the contrasted languages as well:... whatever Clare does, I shall stick by her. (Galsworthy) The matrix clause in this sentence has a clearly adversative meaning which can be proved by the insertion of the adversative conjunction " but": whatever Clare does, (but) I shall stick by her. Similarly in Ukrainian sentences: І хоч життя послало йому калюжу замість океану, (проте) душа в нього була моряцька. (Довженко) Хай посивіло волосся, (але/та) Серце моє, не сивій. (Сосюра)

4. Concessive clauses in English and Ukrainian can also express an accompanying conditional meaning: Cf. The more cautious members of Chicago society, even if they did not attend, then would hear and then would come an ultimate comment and decision. (Dreiser)

The conjunction " even if" has both the concessive (the main) and the conditional (if) meanings corresponding in this sentence to the Ukrainian composite conjunction навіть якщо б/якби: навіть якби найбільш недовірливі члени чиказького товариства не прийшли... все ж було б оголошено останню думку й ухвалу.

Concessive clauses with the additional implicit meaning of conditional are also observed in Ukrainian: Ждатиме його, хоч би (якби) й довго довелося ждати. (Гончар)

Typology of the Adverbial Clauses of Purpose (мети)

Subordinate clauses of purpose (мети) in both contrasted languages extend the matrix clause and point to the purposefulness of its action or state. Consequently, the sub-clause of purpose modifies the matrix clause as a whole. Complex sentences of this subtype, with the sub-clause of purpose modifying the matrix clause as a whole, are well exemplified in both contrasted languages:

He stopped talking that she might Він припинив розмову, аби вона

not see her reaction. (Maugham) притлумила свою реакцію.

One more typologically common subtype constitute the sub-clauses of purpose with mediating parts of the sentence in the matrix clause (usually the object or the adverbial modifier), eg:

He picked up an evening bag so Він підняв вечірню театральну

that I might see it. (Christie) сумочку, щоб я могла роздивитись її.

The subordinate clause here modifies the predicative centre of the matrix clause through the substantival object " bag" (сумка).

The adverbial parts of the matrix clause that mediate the modification

of its predicate by the sub-clause of purpose are usually those of time or place. For example:

...you could come to the theatre tonight...ти міг би ввечері прийти до so that you can meet him. (O.Wilde) театру, аби зустрітися з ним.

A similar mediating adverbial modifier expressed by the phrase " in time" can be observed in the English sentence and in its Ukrainian equivalent below:

He had come in time so that he Він з'явився вчасно для того,

could tell the whole story about that щоб детально розповісти все

incident. (Christie) про той випадок.

It should be added in conclusion that the conjunctions and phrases introducing the adverbial clause of purpose in English and Ukrainian are also of a common structural form. They are as follows:

that, so, so that, so as, lest, щоб/щоби, аби, щоб тільки,

in order that, for fear that. для того, щоб.

Typology of the Adverbial Clauses of Cause (причини)

Causative clauses in the contrasted languages express the reason, cause or motivation of the action expressed in the matrix clause. The subclauses may be introduced in both languages by the following conjunctions and connective phrases:

as, because, since, lest, seeing that, бо, оскільки, тому що, оскіль-

considering that, for the reason ки/поскільки, через те, що; у

that, in view of the fact, in so far зв'язку з тим що; завдяки тому,

as/insofar as, by reason of. що; що.

The position of causative clauses within the complex sentence is actually not fixed. They may occupy the initial, closing, or midposition in complex sentences of the contrasted languages. This can be seen from the following sentences:

Since I had a long way to go, І Оскільки мені було далеко йти,

left them. (O'Dell) я покинув їх.

Mor could not see her now. as he Mop не міг розгледіти її зараз,

gazed over the heads of his бо він дивився поверх голів

audience. (Murdoch) аудиторії/присутніх.

Causative clauses in English and Ukrainian may be homogeneous:

" You only say this because you are " Ти кажеш це тільки тому, що

jealous, because you're in love with ти ревнуєш, тому що ти й сам

her yourself. " (Ibid.) закоханий у неї."

The meaning of causative clauses in both contrasted languages is mostly predetermined by the conjunctions introducing them. Thus, the conjunction " because" and its Ukrainian equivalents тому що (через me, що), бо introduce clauses expressing real cause:

But somewhere... was a feeling of Але десь в глибині душі... вона все ж

ever so slight contempt for Tom зневажала Тома, тому що він був

because he was such a simple fool. такий простодушний дурник. (Maugham)

English clauses introduced by the conjunctions " since" and " as" (оскільки) express a motivation or an explanatory meaning, eg:

Since Christine was included in the Оскільки Крістін також була ce-

invitation also, they said good night ред запрошених, то вони попро- to Mr. Llewelin... (Cronin) щались із паном Ллевеліном...

One more typologically common feature of causative sub-clauses introduced by the conjunction " that" (що) is their ability to express in both languages the resultative meaning of the state of the performer (agent) of the action in the matrix clause. Cf:

...I felt a little foolish that I should Я почувався дещо глупо, що

be sitting in the grand stand at all. мені випало сидіти в почесному

(Anderson) секторі.

An allomorphic feature in the system of causative clauses finds its expression in the existence in Ukrainian of one-member definite personal or impersonal clauses like He писав я до тебе в останні два дні, тому що був у дорозі. (Коцюбинський) Боїться смерті, тому що нема за що вмирати. (Довженко)

The causative meaning in such sentences is never complicated by any accompanying meanings as it was observed above in English and in the same Ukrainian subordinate clauses of purpose.

Typology of the Subordinate Clauses of Result (наслідку)

Subordinate clauses of result (наслідкові підрядні речення) are characterised in English and Ukrainian by a number of common features. Thus, the clauses are introduced by semantically and functionally equivalent conjunctions (so, so that, therefore, as a result, seeing that — так що, тож/отож, внаслідок того що). Some of these conjunctions and connectives introduce clauses expressing the adverbial meaning of result only, as, for instance, the conjunction so that and its Ukrainian equivalent так що:

She got quickly up, shaking the Вона, швидко встаючи, зачепи- yellow tree, so that it showered its ла жовте дерево, так що його petals again over my typewriter. пелюстки знову сипнули на мою (Greene) друкарську машинку.

The conjunction so or the adverbial connector therefore, and their Ukrainian equivalent отож/тож, introduce clauses of result which have an accompanying causal meaning. Cf.

The wild dogs could not attack me Здичавілі собаки не могли напас-

from any of these directions, so І ти на мене з жодного боку, тож

lay on the earth and drank... (O'Dell) я лежав на землі і пив з джерела.

The subject " I" of the matrix clause, as a result of there being no danger (and because of it as well), " lay on the earth and drank". And in

Ukrainian: " Я лежав і пив... внаслідок того (і тому що) собаки не могли напасти на мене".

Of isomorphic nature in both languages are also clauses of result with an inherent meaning of comparison, eg:

The reply was so theatrical that її відповідь була така театрально-

Fred began to chuckle. (Maugham) штучна, що Фред Гарді аж захихикав.

The adverbial meaning of comparison in the sentences above is partly expressed by the adverbial word-group " so theatrical... that" (така театрально-штучна, що).