Section 1.3 Aircraft – General

Exercise 1.3.1 Read and translate the text.

ICAO defines an aircraft as “any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air other than the reactions of air against the earth’s surface”.

Probably the best place for us to start is with a general description of an aircraft.

An aircraft is comprised of:

1. Airframe

2. Powerplant

3. Systems

4. Equipment

1. The airframe is made up of a fuselage, wings and tail plane. This structure is supported on the ground by the undercarriage which is generally raised and lowered by hydraulic power. In flight it is supported by the wings.

2. The power plant on an aircraft is usually either piston, turboprop or turbojet. Fuel for a piston engine aircraft is petrol, while that for turboprop or turbojet is kerosene.

3. The main systems on modern aircraft are air conditioning, automatic flight, electrics, flight controls, fuel, hydraulics, landing gear, pneumatics, power plant and pressurization. Each system has an ATA reference number.

4. Equipment consists of various items such as passenger seats, galleys, radios, computers, fire extinguishers, toilets, etc.

Exercise 1.3.2 Answer the questions.

1. What is an aircraft comprised of?

2. What is airframe made up of?

3. What types of the power plant are there on the aircraft?

4. What are the main systems on modern aircraft?

5. What does equipment consist of?

Exercise 1.3.3 Match the line in column A with a line in column B.

Exercise 1.3.4 Translate the words and word combinations into your language and back into English. Memorize them.

Exercise 1.3.5 Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.

1.

2.

3.

Exercise 1.3.6 Complete the sentences with the words in column A in exercise 1.3.5.

1. a. An _______ does not include engines and propellers.

b. ________ ranges from passenger seats and safety items to cargo nets.

c. Manual ______ are filled with water, chemicals or gas.

d. The _________ is the operation trip or journey of an aircraft between two airports, operated by an airline.

e. The _______ accommodates the passengers, payload and crew.

2. f. Jet A 1, Jet A 2 and Jet A 3 are examples of _______ used in operations.

g. The functions of the _______ is to support the aircraft on the ground and provide takeoff, landing and taxiing of the aircraft.

h. The primary elements of the aircraft are the airframe and the _______.

3. i. The functions of the ________ are to provide high lift, to support the aircraft in flight and to provide a low landing speed.

j. The basic types of the _______ are the conventional or tail-wheel gear, the tricycle and bicycle gear or ski-wheel combination types, special purpose gear.

Exercise 1.3.7 Retell the text.

Section 1.4 Flight

Exercise 1.4.1 Read and translate the text.

Four forces act on an aircraft in flight: lift, weight, thrust and drag. An aircraft is supported by lift and moved forward by thrust. Lift opposes weight while drag resists thrust. In level and stable flight all four forces are equal.

In flight, lift depends on the relationship between air density, the angle of attack, airspeed, the shape of the airfoil and its area. Drag depends on similar factors. But the relationship breaks down when:

Airspeed becomes too slow and the aircraft begins to stall.

Airspeed gets too fast when compressibility causes shock wave formation.

An aeroplane rotates about three axes: pitch, roll and yaw. Rates of rotation are commanded by the control surfaces. Pitch is adjusted by movement of the elevators on the tail plane. Roll is controlled by the ailerons on the wings assisted by spoilers. Yaw is used to balance the aircraft directionally and can be input via the rudder. The stabilizer balances the aircraft in pitch. Speed brakes are used to slow the aircraft or allow it to lose height rapidly. Flaps assist an aeroplane to fly slowly without stalling.

The pilot moves the control surface by means of the control column. In simple aircraft the control column is physically connected to the control surfaces by cable. In larger and more complex aircraft hydraulic power is used to move the control surfaces as the pilot is not strong enough. Here the cables are connected to hydraulic actuators. In some new aircraft the movement of the control column by the pilot generates a computer signal which is used to position the hydraulic actuators. This is known as fly by wire and results in weight savings by removing the cables and their support structure.

Exercise 1.4.2 Answer the questions.

1. What forces act on an aircraft in flight?

2. What force supports an aircraft in flight?

3. What force moves an aircraft forward?

4. In what kind of flight are all four forces equal?

5. What does lift depend on in flight?

6. What does drag depend on in flight?

7. When does the relationship break down?

8. What axes does an aeroplane rotate about?

9. What are rates of rotation commanded by?

10. What is pitch adjusted by?

11. What is roll controlled by?

12. What is yaw used for?

13. What are speedbrakers used for?

14. What devices assist an aeroplane to fly slowly without stalling?

Exercise 1.4.3 Are the sentences true (v) or false (x)? Correct the false ones.

1. Lift opposes thrust and drag opposes weight.

2. In flight lift and drag depend on the relationship between air density, the angle of attack, airspeed, the shape of the airfoil and its area.

3. An aeroplane rotates about four axes.

d. In simple aircraft the control column is physically connected to the control surfaces by cable.

4. In larger and more complex aircraft the cables are connected to hydraulic actuators.

5. In some new aircraft the movement of the control column by the pilot generates a computer signal which is used to position the hydraulic actuators.

Exercise 1.4. 4 Translate the words and words combinations into your language and back into English. Memorize them.

Exercise 1.4.5 Match the words in column A with their definitions in column B.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Exercise 1.4.6 Complete the sentences with the words in column A in exercise 1.4.5.

1. a. The two _______, one at the outer trailing edge of each wing, are movable surfaces that control movement about the longitudinal axis.

b. An ___________ is a device that gets a useful reaction from air moving over its surface.

c. The ________________ is also known as “Alpha” or α.

2. d. The function of the flight ___________ is to control the aircraft in flight, i.e. to cause it to climb, dive and turn.

e. The ______________ control the movement of the aircraft about its lateral axis.

f. __________ is the backward acting force.

g. __________ is the upward acting force.

3. h. Motion about the lateral axis is _________ and is produced by movement of the elevators at the rear of the horizontal tail assembly.

i. Motion about the longitudinal axis is _____ and is produced by movement of the ailerons located at the trailing edges of the wings.

j. The ____________ controls movement of the aeroplane about its vertical axis.

k. The elevators are hinged to a fixed surface – the horizontal ______.

4. l. __________ is the forward acting force.

m. ____________ is the downward acting force.

n. Motion about the vertical axis is ____________ and is produced by the movement of the rudder located at the rear of the vertical tail assembly.

Exercise 1.4.7 Retell the text.

Section 1.5 Introduction to Boeing 737-3/4/500 series

Exercise 1.5.1 Read and translate the text.

The initial Boeing 737-100 was ordered by Lufthansa in 1967. It was designed to carry approximately 90 passengers with a wingspan and length of 90 feet. Following this the 737-200 derivative, seating 100 passengers, was ordered by United Airlines later the same year. In 1981 Southwest Airlines ordered the first 737-300 with the fuselage stretched to accommodate 130 passengers. New high-bypass CFM-56-3-B1 engines (20, 000lb. thrust) were attached to a redesigned wing and advanced avionics enabled more accurate navigation.

The high-bypass engines provided lower fuel burn while the new wing gave lower drag. The new avionics provided a Flight Management Computer System with an Inertial Reference System. This allowed control of both lateral and vertical navigation while optimizing engine thrust. The dual autopilot system allows Cat III approaches while the system helps the pilot to fly more accurately while flying the aircraft manually. This system combination is referred to as the AFDS.

The 737-400 carries about 146 passengers and is 120 inches longer than the 737-300 or 244 inches longer than the 737-200. The 737-500 carries about 110 passengers and has a similar airframe size to the 737-200. The avionics, engines, structures, systems and wings are common on the 737-3/4/500. The engines operate at different thrust performance. The common flight deck, structures and mechanical systems result in almost identical procedures and handling characteristics.

Exercise 1. 5.2 Answer the questions.

1. When was the initial Boeing 737-100 ordered and who by?

2. When was the 737-200 ordered and who by?

3. When was the first 737-300 ordered and who by?

4. What enabled more accurate navigation in the first 737-300?

5. What did the high-bypass engines provide and what did the new wing give (in the 737-300)?

6. What did the new avionics provide? What did this allow?

7. What does the dual autopilot allow?

8. How many passengers can the 737-500 carry?

Exercise 1.5.3 Match the airplane with the number of passengers it can carry and the year of order.

Exercise 1.5.4 Are the sentences true (v) or false (x)? Correct the false ones.

1. The wingspan and length of the initial Boeing 737-100 was of 90 feet.

2. The new avionics on the 737-300 provided a Flight Management Computer System with an Inertial Reference System.

3. The dual autopilot system allows Cat II approaches.

4. The 737-400 is 255 inches longer than the 737-300 or 120 inches longer than the 737-200.

5. The 737-500 has a similar airplane size to the 737-200.

6. The avionics, engines, structures, systems and wings are common on the 737-3/4/500.

Exercise 1.5. 5 Translate the words and word combinations into your language and back. Memorize them.

Exercise 1.5.6 Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.

1.

2.

Exercise 1.5.7 Complete the sentences with the words in column A in exercise 1.5.6.

a. A warning will sound if the ________ accidentally disconnects.

b. ________ control is Air Traffic Control Service (ATC) provided for aircraft arriving and departing an airport.

c. B 737-300, 400, 500 are _____ of B 737-100.

d. ____________ is the Modern method of displaying flight information.

e. Lights on the tip of the wings and tail are called ______ lights.

Exercise 1.5.8 What do the following abbreviations stand for?

Exercise 1.5.9 Retell the text.

UNIT 2

PRE-FLIGHT

Section 2.1 Operations Control (part 1)

Exercise 2.1.1 Read and translate the text.

There must be a qualified crew assigned to each aircraft. The main function of Crew Control is to ensure that each flight has an operational crew. This means that the crew is qualified and that the flight can be operated within the work time limitations of the crew. In times of disruption this can be difficult to achieve and requires close co-operation with Operations Control.

While there is statutory responsibility for pilots to ensure that their licences are valid before flying, many airlines also accept responsibility to ensure that this is so. This cross check is also monitored by Crew Control.

As you can imagine there is a similar department in the maintenance area which ensures that each aircraft is serviceable for flight and has enough time available before next overhaul to allow the flight to be operated. This function is often called Maintenance Control.

In most airlines the control, or day to day function, is backed up by larger departments which plan and schedule the operation. Although these departments are not very evident to the public they have a critical role in the operation. They also have a major impact on financial results. When controlling high cost items such as aircraft or pilots it is important to utilize them fully to ensure economies of scale. However this must be balanced by ensuring that sufficient recovery time is available to carry out any necessary maintenance work on the aircraft, and to provide the crew with sufficient rest so that they may avoid fatigue.

The planning departments ensure that aircraft are available in advance, crews are trained to operate them and that sufficient front line staff are available.

Exercise 2.1.2 Answer the questions.

1. Why is it necessary to assign a qualified crew to each aircraft?

2. What is the main function of Crew Control?

3. What is statutory responsibility for pilots?

4. What is Maintenance Control?

5. What do large departments do in most airlines?

6. Why are big departments not very evident to public?

7. What are the main functions of big departments?

8. Why do they have a major impact on financial results?

9. What do the planning departments ensure?

10. Who provides the feasibility study?

Exercise 2.1.3 Give the English equivalent for the following:

Xорошо подготовленный экипаж; гарантировать, обеспечивать; основное назначение; сплоченный экипаж; рабочее время экипажа; раскол; тесное сотрудничество; будет трудно; установленная законом ответственность; действительный; представлять, воображать; однотипный отдел, пригодный для полета; достаточно времени; тщательный осмотр; выполнять полет; отдел в авиакомпании, отвечающий за распределение воздушных судов на рейсы; поддерживать; планировать и вносить в расписание; несмотря на; решающая роль; огромное влияние на …; важно; однако; обеспечивать кого-то чем-то; необходимый отдых; избегать перенапряжения, усталости; заранее; экипаж воздушного судна; осуществлять возможное изучение; рабочий экипаж.

Exercise 2.1.4 Are the sentences true (v) or false (x)? Correct the false ones.

1. The main function of Crew Control is to ensure that each flight has an operational crew.

2. The flight can be operated within the work time limitations of the crew.

3. There is no statutory responsibility for pilots to ensure that their licences are valid before flying.

4. Each aircraft is serviceable for flight.

5. In most airlines the control, or day to day function, is backed up by larger departments which plan and schedule the operation.

6. These departments are very evident to public.

7. The planning departments ensure that aircraft are not available in advance.

Exercise 2.1.5 Match the items in column A with their definitions in column B.

Exercise 2.1.6 Complete the sentences with the words in column A in exercise 2.1.5.

1. There is ________ responsibility for pilots to ensure that their _________ are valid before flying.

2. The main _________ of Crew Control is to ensure that each flight has an operational crew.

3. It is necessary to provide the crew with sufficient rest so that they may avoid _________.

4. It is important to utilize everything fully to ensure __________.

5. Captain wanted to jot the information down in his ___________.

Exercise 2.1.7 Fill in the gaps with the words from the text choosing from the ones given in brackets.

1. In most airlines the control is _________ by larger departments which plan and schedule the operation. (supported, maintained, backed up)

2. Large departments also have a major ___________ on financial results. (force, influence, impact)

3. The crew has to be provided with sufficient rest so that they may avoid _________ (danger, fatigue, tiredness).

4. Large departments have a ________ in the operation. (important role, critical role, significant role)

5. The crew is __________ and the flight can be operated. (trained, experienced, qualified)

6. Many departments conduct the __________. (possibility study, feasibility study, practicability study)

Exercise 2.1.8 Fill in the gaps with the related words.

1. There must be a qualified crew _________ to each aircraft (assign).

2. The flight can be operated within the work time _________ (limit).

3. Cross check is also __________ by Crew Control (monitor).

4. In most airlines the control is __________ by larger departments which plan and schedule the operation (back up).

5. When _________ high cost items it is important to utilize them fully to ensure economies of scale (control).

6. Many airlines accept ___________ to ensure that pilot’s licences are valid before flying (responsible).

7. Each flight is __________ for flight (service).

Exercise 2.1.9 Find in the text the synonyms for the following words and expressions.

Timetable, list, to let somebody know, similar, to write something down, flight attendants, of course, important, trained crew, mutual co-operation, to guarantee, a lot of time, routine function, to support, tiredness, beforehand, valid documents, important.

Section 2.2 Operations Control (part 2)

Exercise 2.2.1 Read and translate the text.

Operations Control is the airline department responsible for the day to day management of the airline’s flights.

Ops Control, along with Flight Operations and the Air Safety Office, report to the General Manager Flight Operations.

It is the function of Ops Control to keep the schedule running smoothly and ensure that the airline has a reliable and punctual service. Ops Control monitors and controls the progress of aircraft and the flight schedule across the network. From this department flight plans are filed with ATC, navigation and fuel requirements are planned, pilots are briefed and aircraft are assigned to flights. Ops Control is a highly automated department with specialized computer software for flight planning, communications and presentation of appropriate weather information. Through the use of the phone, fax, HF and VHF radio, ACARS communication systems and other communications links, Ops Control keeps in contact with all elements of the operation.

The schedule is influenced by many factors which are constantly changing. These include adverse weather conditions at destinations or en route, unserviceability of aircraft or ground equipment, traffic congestion at certain airports and many other events or circumstances. The fact that some of these factors are unpredictable and affect the airline across the network at different times and in different ways, sometimes causes disruption to the schedule and to the passengers. It is the job of Ops Control to take preventive action whenever possible, to co-ordinate the airline’s response and decision making in order to minimize the impact these disruptions have on customers and to get the airline back on schedule. The key imperatives in doing this are safety, customer service and economic use of resources.

The players in the daily drama faced by Ops Control are the Duty Ops Controller and his team. The controllers are the on-the-day managers of the airline operation. Their decisions can impact heavily on the performance of the airline, regarding whether to delay, re-route, combine, cancel or lay-on extra flights. Usually these decisions are made quickly, keeping the knock-on effects clearly in mind. The Controllers consult closely with Captains and with Duty Managers in the various.

The duty Flight Operations Officers, who hold Flight Dispatcher certificates, plan the transatlantic operation, brief flight crew and negotiate and manage slots with the Central Flow Management Unit (CFMU) at Eurocontrol. Transatlantic and long haul flight planning of ETOPS operations requires good critical judgement and a high level of expertise. The Operations Officer chooses the optimum track, flight levels and en route alternates to ensure all requirements are met and to satisfy the Captain of the particular flight. They monitor weather and airport information and optimize the short haul operation plans. They keep up to date with the overall situation and provide information to the duty Ops Controller and flight crew as required. All of this work is supported by Operations Assistants who manage the fleet assignment function, and prepare navigation bags and flight documentation.

Operations Technical Support staff perform the route and navigation planning function of Operations Control. They provide and regularly update the data base for the flight planning system, and for the aircraft Flight Management Computer System. They involved in route analysis and airport analysis and work with the Flight Operations Department on technical and regulatory matters. They provide flight crew briefing for and customer airlines.

The team of duty ops controller, operations officers and assistants, backed up by operations technical support personnel, provides a flexible response to the ever changing operational situation. They and the flight crew form a complementary team to ensure a safe, efficient and effective operational product is delivered to the passengers.

Exercise 2.2.2 Answer the questions.

1. What is Operations Control responsible for?

2. What is the function of Operations Control?

3. How does Operations Control keep in contract with all elements of the operation?

4. What is the schedule influenced by?

5. What factors can cause disruption to the schedule and to the passengers?

6. What is the job of Ops Control?

7. What are the key imperatives of Ops Control?

8. Why can the duty Ops Controller’s decision impact on the performance of the airline?

9. Why do the controllers consult closely with Captains and Duty Managers in the various?

10. Who usually plans the transatlantic operation?

11. Why do transatlantic flights require good critical judgement?

12. What does the Operations officer do?

13. What do Operations Technical Support staff perform?

14. Who ensures safe, efficient and effective flights?

Exercise 2.2.3 Give the English equivalents for the following:

Быть ответственным за что-либо; следить, чтобы полеты осуществлялись согласно расписания, без задержек; надежное обслуживание; план полета; навигационные требования; компьютерное обеспечение; соответствующая информация о погоде; пользование телефоном, факсом; находиться на связи с …; расписание полетов самолетов; постоянно; неблагоприятные погодные условия; аэродром назначения; непригодность воздушного судна; наземное оборудование; скопление бортов; различные обстоятельства; применять предупредительные действия; непредсказуемые факторы; принимать решения; ключевые задачи; безопасность; обслуживание пассажиров; экономное использование ресурсов; сильно влиять на…, дополнительные полеты; обеспечивать; трансатлантические полеты; экипаж ВС; Евроконтроль; полеты на дальние (короткие) расстояния; соответствовать требованиям; конкретный полет; штурманские портфели, полетная документация; личный состав.

Exercise 2.2.4 Are the sentences true (v) or false (x)? Correct the false ones.

1. It is the function of Ops Control to keep the schedule running smoothly and ensure that the airline has a reliable and punctual service.

2. The schedule is influenced by many factors which are constantly changing.

3. The key imperatives are safety, customer service and economic use of resources.

4. The controllers are not the on-the-day managers of the airline operation.

5. The controllers consult closely with captains and with duty managers in the various.

6. The duty flight operations provide a flexible response to the ever changing operational situation.

7. Transatlantic and long haul flight does not require good critical judgement and a high level of expertise.

8. Through the use of the phone, fax, HF and VHF radio, ACARS communication systems and other communications links, Ops Control keeps in contract with all elements of the operation.

9. The job of Ops Control is to take preventive action whenever possible.

Exercise 2.2.5 Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.

Exercise 2.2.6 Complete the sentences with the words in column A in exercise 2.2.5.

1. The function of Operations Control is to keep the ___________ running smoothly and ensure that the airline has a reliable and punctual service.

2. ___________ monitors and controls the progress of aircraft and the flight schedule across the network.

3. Decisions are made quickly, keeping the __________ effects clearly in mind.

4. Transatlantic and ___________ flight requires good critical judgement and a high level of expertise.

5. Operation Assistants manage the __________ function and prepare __________ and documentation.

6. Operations Technical Support staff provide and regulaly update the ____________ for the flight planning system.

7. Shannon was shown as the first ____________.

8. _____________ is filed with ATC, navigation and fuel requirements are planned, pilots are briefed and aircraft is assigned to flight.

Exercise 2.2.7 What do the following abbreviations stand for?

Exercise 2.2.8 Fill in the gaps with the words from the text choosing from the ones given in brackets.

1. There is no ________ that affects on any sector (obstacle, restriction, obstruction).

2. Operations Control is the __________ department responsible for the day to day management of the airline’s flights (aircraft, office, airline).

3. The schedule is influenced by many factors which are ___________ changing (annually, constantly, temporarily).

4. No delay is ________ (organized, cancelled, expected).

5. The controllers consult closely with ___________ (flight attendants, passengers, captains).

Exercise 2.2.9 Make up your own sentences using the following words and word combinations:

To be aware of; delay; briefing folder; the latest company bulletins; restrictions; destination; long haul flight; documentation; Eurocontrol; short haul; airport; schedule; navigation; to keep in contact with, to form a team; knock-on effects; flight crew; flight planning system; customer service; economic use; reliable and punctual service; to make decision; extra flights; weather information.

Exercise 2.2.10 Retell the text.

Section 2.3 Aviation weather

Exercise 2.3.1 Read and translate the text.

Information about the weather at the airports of departure, en route, and at the destination is essential for the safety of flight. Despite modern improvements in aircraft design and systems technology, safety is still very much affected by such considerations as visibility, icing, turbulence and strong winds.

So that he can adequately plan his flight, the pilot must have knowledge and understanding of climatology, how the weather develops and changes and its implications for and impact on flight operations and safety.

Such factors as aircraft performance, alternate airport selection, routing, airways, runways, and landing aids available are all dependent upon and affected by local weather conditions. Depending upon the actual and forecast met conditions, the pilot must decide whether the flight may be operated safely to its destination on its normal route, divert, or be delayed.

In making his decision, the pilot, will take into account such factors as:

· the general actual and forecast weather pattern in the overall operational area;

· actual and forecast weather at the departure airport;

· actual and forecast weather aloft and at airports of the planned and alternative routes;

· actual and forecast weather at the destination airport and at commercially preferable and other available alternate airports.

He will also take into consideration:

· the type of aircraft being flown and its equipment;

· his own training, experience and expertise;

· the runway in use and other runways available at departure, destination and en route airports;

· Navigation aids and landing aids available at the various airports, but particularly at the departure and destination airports.

In studying the weather and making his decision the pilot’s overriding consideration will be the safety of the aircraft and all its occupants.

Weather information is collected, analysed and distributed to airlines by the Meteorological Service. Weather information is made available to the pilot in many ways. In some cases there may be a MET office where a forecaster is present or available to brief the pilot and to discuss the current weather and forecast developments. Often this in-depth briefing is provided by a company Dispatcher or Operations Officer in the Operations office. The pilot may also brief himself by studying the weather information displayed on monitors or in printed form in the MET or Operations office. The pilot is provided with printed weather reports, forecasts, synoptic charts, upper level wind charts and sometimes, satellite photographs of the cloud distribution in the intended operational area. Often, real-time displays of weather radar images, showing the location and intensity of cumulonimbus cloud, heavy rain centres and thunderstorms, are provided on monitors and may be printed if required.

Some of the reports provided are:

METAR: Actual Reports of the actual weather conditions prevailing at the station at the time and date of observation. These are issued by the Meteorological services of the various States and are usually transmitted in airport groups in Bulletins. Scheduled observations (SA) are issued every half-hour in Europe and every hour in North America. Special observations (SP) are issued as necessary when there is a significant change in the observed weather.

The operational information included in a METAR is detailed in a standard sequence. Not all the items may be issued or be present in any one report. These include:

Surface wind

Visibility

Runway Visual Range (RVR)

Present Weather

Clouds or Vertical Visibility

Temperature and Dew-point

Atmospheric Pressure

Recent Weather and Wind Shear

Trend-type Landing Forecast, valid for two hours after observation.

Here are some examples of this type of weather report:

METARs TRANSMITTED FROM METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE VIA AFTN

EIDW201630Z 25014KT 9999 FEW023 SCT040 BKN090 12/07 Q1000 NOSIG=

EINN201630Z 28017KT 9999 CLR12/06 Q1003 NOSIG=

EICK201630Z 28015KT 8000 SHRA SCT022 SCT040 BKN200 10/05 Q1003 NOSIG=

EGAA201620Z 34020KT 8000 RADZ FEW006 BKN010 OVC018 07/04 Q1002

TEMPO 5000 RA=